Post-Contact Education

Tribes affected: Pantribal

Significance: Since 1568, three major groups—Christian missionaries, the federal government, and public school systems—have assumed responsibility for educating American Indians under policies that often have devastated tribal well-being

As more and more European settlers entered that part of the Americas now known as the United States, education was seen as a way of assimilating young Native Americans into the dominant white culture. The history of Europeanized Indian education over four centuries tells a story of cultural genocide.

Missionary Activity and Paternalism, 1568-1870

The first school specifically founded for the education of Indian youth in the New World was established by the Jesuits in Havana, Florida, in 1568. For the next three hundred years, Catholic and Protestant religious groups dominated non-Indian attempts to educate Indians. In 1617, King James asked Anglican clergy to collect money for building “churches and schools for ye education of ye children of these Barbarians in Virginia.” One of the earliest of these religious schools was founded by the Reverend John Eliot in 1631 in Roxbury, Massachusetts. He developed a plan to bring Indians together in small, self-governing “Indian prayer towns” where they could be instructed in Christian ethics and arts. In order to become accepted by the Puritans in these prayer towns, Indians had to give up their old way of life completely, including long hair for men and short hair for women. The natives who lived in these towns were called "praying Indians."

Another example of colonial religious schools was Moor’s Charity School, founded in 1755 by Eleazar Wheelock, a Congregationalist minister. This Connecticut school concerned itself with the academic training of Indian youngsters and included reading, writing, arithmetic, English, Greek, and Latin in its curriculum. The school operated until 1769 and enrolled as many as 150 Indian youth.

A common method of providing educational assistance during this period was by treaty stipulation. From the first treaty in 1778 until 1871, when treaty making with the Indians ended, the United States entered into almost four hundred treaties, of which 120 had educational provisions. The terms usually called for teachers, material, and equipment for educational purposes.

The first specific appropriation by Congress for Indian education was the Act of March 30, 1802, which allowed $15,000 per year “to promote civilization among the aborigines.” The money went mostly to missionary groups. In 1819, Congress established a civilization fund, which lasted until 1873, to provide financial support to religious groups and other interested individuals who were willing to live among and teach Indians. The Act of March 3, 1819, which established this fund, also gave the president complete authority over Indian education and remained the basic authorization for the educational activities carried out by the government on behalf of Indian people.

Manual labor schools had their beginnings during the period when the tribes were being moved out of the East and Northeast. Usually these were located in Indian country or at a site convenient to several tribes and, for that reason, were agreeable to the Indians. They also drew support from the government, which believed that it was a waste of effort to provide only academic training. The first manual labor school, the Choctaw Academy, was organized in 1837 by Colonel Richard Johnson in Scott County, Kentucky. This school, and others that came later, offered religious, academic, and practical instruction. Six hours were spent daily in the classroom and six at work on farm and shop detail. By 1840, the U.S. government was operating six manual labor schools with eight hundred students and eighty-seven boarding schools with about twenty-nine hundred students.

Several Indian tribes, with the help of missionaries and educators, built and supported their own schools. The Mohawks did this as early as 1712 under the influence of the Reverend Thomas Barkley, an Anglican missionary. This school, with one temporary suspension, operated until the end of the American Revolution. The Choctaws and Cherokees, before their removal from their original homelands, had instituted common schools, supported with funds obtained from the United States for land cessions. After the removal of these tribes to lands west of the Mississippi, the Cherokees, in 1841, and the Choctaws, in 1842, reestablished their schools. (A number of states had not yet provided for a system of common schools in 1842.) The Cherokee system, by 1852, included twenty-one elementary schools and two academies. The enrollment in that year was given as 1,100. The Choctaws had nine schools, of which seven experimented with teaching reading and writing to adults. Teachers were brought from the East to be in charge of advanced academic work, and the course of study included music, astronomy, Latin, botany, algebra, and elocution. Within ten years, however, the majority of their teachers had changed from eastern-educated missionaries to locally trained teachers. The Chickasaw, Creek, and Seminole tribes, also members of the “Five Civilized Tribes,” followed the example of the Cherokees and Choctaws within a few years and established school systems. In all cases, the schools were tribally supported, and they operated without federal supervision until 1906, when the tribal governments of these five tribes were destroyed by an act of Congress.

In 1851, the period of reservation settlement began and did not end until the 1930’s. Schools established on reservations were designed to devalue the traditional culture and religion of Indian people. One of the most significant ways of undermining Indian culture was the government’s attempt to suppress native language. In 1880, the Indian Bureau issued regulations that “all instruction must be in English” in both mission and government schools under threat of loss of government funding. In 1885, some teachers and administrators, recognizing the small utility of standard educational training and methods, suggested that special materials be created for Indian children. No special textbooks were developed, however, until well into the twentieth century.

Government Control and Dependence, 1870-1923

In 1865, under President Ulysses S. Grant, Indian boarding schools had their birth. After studying conditions among some of the western tribes, a congressional committee suggested that “boarding schools remote from Indian communities” would be most successful in solving the “Indian problem.” Grant, believing that the only solution lay in “the civilization” of Indians into white culture, supported the move. In 1878, the boarding school system was launched when the Carlisle Indian School in Carlisle, Pennsylvania, was founded by General Richard Henry Pratt. Pratt, alarmed at the “gross injustices to both races [Indians and blacks]” which he had observed, believed that true equality could come to the Indians only if they learned to feel at home in the white world, where they deserved both “the opportunities and . . . safeguards of our Declaration and Constitution.” At Carlisle, which enrolled children from the midwestern and western tribes, students were required to speak, read, and write English and to assume the clothing and customs of white people. They were taught skills which would later help them become employed in trades such as blacksmithing, carpentry, tailoring, and farming. Girls were taught domestic skills. After completing school, students were placed with white families for three years; they worked in exchange for their upkeep. The families were paid fifty dollars a year to cover costs of clothing and health care. This practice came to be called the Carlisle Outing, which Pratt proclaimed to be the “right arm” of the school.

Forts no longer needed by the army were converted into boarding schools. Between 1889 and 1892, twelve such boarding schools were established. Little attention was paid to tribal differences in language and customs. It was assumed—rightly—that if Native American children could be taken at a young enough age and moved far enough away from the influences of family and tribe, the odds against their ever again becoming a part of their original environment were remote. Children as young as five years old were sent to the boarding schools. The shock, fear, and loneliness which these children faced upon being uprooted from everything familiar and known can only be imagined. Pratt, operating under the noblest of intentions, had unwittingly contributed to one of the saddest chapters in Indian history.

By 1887, Congress was appropriating more than a million dollars a year for Indian education. About half the appropriations went to missionaries who were contracted to educate Indians. Feuding between Protestants and Catholics, however, aggravated because the Catholics were much more successful in establishing schools, led the Protestants to support funding only government-run schools. With the appointment in 1889 of General Thomas J. Morgan, a Baptist minister, as commissioner of Indian affairs, the Republicans made a systematic effort to stop government funding of all missionary schools. By 1900 all direct funding to these schools was ended. Tribes continued to receive a portion of the dollars which the federal government had previously provided the churches for funding of the mission schools. Some tribes maintained these schools in spite of the reduced resources; most used the funds for other needs.

Moves to Reform Indian Education, 1924-1944

As the new century began, the continued inability of boarding schools and English-only education to transform Indians into white people led to disillusionment and lowered expectations for Indian education. Increasingly, Indians were viewed in the same light as blacks at that time: as a permanent underclass for whom an inferior, nonacademic, vocational education was appropriate and adequate.

At the same time, because of the staggering loss of land and the inefficiency of education, the total Indian situation was growing progressively worse. In 1902, the Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) was operating twenty-five boarding schools in fifteen states for 9,736 students. By 1912, there were more Indian children in public schools than in government schools. As government schools lost ground, efforts to increase Indian enrollment in public day schools did not include examining the ability of these schools to meet Indian needs.

In 1924, a “Committee of One Hundred Citizens” was called together by the secretary of the interior to discuss how Indian education could be improved. The committee recommended better school facilities, better trained personnel, an increase in the number of Indian students in public schools, and high school and college scholarships. These recommendations helped establish reservation day schools up to the sixth grade and reservation boarding schools up to the eighth grade.

In 1928, a government-sponsored study (the Meriam Report) claimed that the Bureau of Indian Affairs was providing poor-quality services to Indians; it particularly pointed to the shocking conditions found in boarding schools. The committee recommended that elementary children not be sent to BIA boarding schools at all. Shortly after publication of the study, John Collier, one of the BIA’s leading critics, became commissioner of Indian affairs and immediately sought to implement the recommendations of the Meriam Report. The Johnson-O’Malley Act (1934) allowed the federal government to pay states for educating Indians in public schools.

The Termination Era, 1945-1970

In the 1950’s, under President Dwight Eisenhower, six “termination” bills were passed. The termination policy was intended to end all federal involvement with the Indians, leaving policy issues in health, education, and welfare up to the states. Conditions improved little as states, for the most part, failed to provide adequate services in any of these arenas. Another program, the Native American relocation program, helped Indians move from reservations to cities, where, presumably, educational and employment opportunities were better. Indian children in cities showed improved academic achievement, but many felt displaced and unhappy.

Between 1967 and 1971, Robert J. Havighurst of the University of Chicago directed a research project entitled the National Study of American Indian Education. Their recommendations called for greatly increased Indian participation in goal setting and in implementation of programs. During this same period, a report compiled by a Senate subcommittee on Indian education revealed that Indian school dropout rates were twice the national average, that Indian students lagged two to three years behind white students in school achievement, that only 1 percent had Indian teachers, that one-fourth of teachers of Indian students preferred not to teach them, and that “Indian children more than any other minority group believed themselves to be ‘below average’ in intelligence.”

During this time, Indian educators had become increasingly active, and, by the end of the decade, the National Indian Education Association had been formed. In 1968 the first tribally controlled college, Navajo Community College, was founded, and in 1971 the Coalition of Indian Controlled School Boards was established.

The Move Toward Self-Determination Since 1970

The Senate report on the plight of Indians led to the passage of the Indian Education Act in 1972. This act provided for special programs benefiting Indian children in reservation schools as well as those attending urban public schools. It was amended in 1975 to require that Indian parents be involved in the planning of these programs. The amended version also encouraged the establishment of community-run schools and stressed culturally relevant and bilingual curricular materials. The Office of Education, after a two-year study, recommended that tribal history, culture, and languages be emphasized, using students’ own tongue as the language of instruction. During 1977, President Jimmy Carter created the new post of assistant secretary of the interior for Indian affairs and named a member of the Blackfoot tribe, Forrest J. Gerrard, to the position.

In spite of efforts to improve educational opportunities for Indians, in the last decade of the twentieth century Indian students still struggled for visibility in the education market. High-school dropout rates for Indian students continued to be the highest for all minority groups, with fewer than 50 percent completing a high school education. Some reservation schools reported a yearly teacher turnover rate of 90 percent. In 1990, bachelor’s degrees earned by Indians comprised less than 0.5 percent of all degrees conferred. Doctorates earned by Indians between 1980 and 1990 actually dropped, from 130 to 102.

In the 1990’s, two urban public school districts with relatively large Indian populations began to experiment with schools that focus on Indian culture along with traditional academic curricula. The American Indian Magnet School at Mounds Park All-Nations School in the St. Paul, Minnesota, public school system declared the goal of “placing education into culture instead of continuing the practice of placing culture into education.” Three centuries of national educational policy must take at least partial responsibility for the tragic decline of tribal cultures in the United States, but perhaps it will also take the lead in providing a vehicle for the land’s original citizens to assume their rightful place in American society.

Bibliography

Cahn, Edgar S., and David W. Hearne. Our Brother’s Keeper: The Indian in White America. New York: New American Library, 1975. A collection of writings and pictures compiled by the Citizens’ Advocate Center in Washington, D.C.; chronicles the plight of American Indians and actions of the Bureau of Indian Affairs.

Collier, John. Indians of the Americas. New York: W. W. Norton, 1947. The author, a former U.S. commissioner of Indian affairs, writes about four centuries of Western European impact on American Indian cultures.

Embree, Edwin R. Indians of the Americas. 1934. Reprint. New York: Collier Books, 1970. Embree, writing in opposition to the trend that sought to “integrate” the Indian, revived world interest in the unique lifestyles of North, Central, and South American tribes; focuses on customs, manners, and mysteries of their religion.

Fey, Harold, and D’Arcy McNickle. Indians and Other Americans: Two Ways of Life Meet. Rev. ed. New York: Harper & Row, 1970. History of the European influence on the culture of the American Indian; includes first-person accounts by Indians from diverse tribes who shared common experiences regarding attempts by whites to “civilize” them.

Fischbacher, Theodore. A Study of the Role of the Federal Government in the Education of the American Indian. San Francisco: R & E Research Associates, 1974. Chronological account of the role of the federal government in the education of American Indians living within the territory of the United States as disclosed in the government’s official records.

Fuchs, Estelle, and Robert Havighurst. “Boarding Schools.” In To Live on This Earth. Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1972. Summarizes events leading up to and including the establishment of Indian boarding schools, including a discussion of those still operating in the 1960’s.

Josephy, Alvin M., Jr. Red Power: The American Indian’s Fight for Freedom. New York: American Heritage Press, 1971. A collection of excerpts from speeches, articles, studies, and other documents providing a documentary history of the critical decade of the 1960’s.

Pratt, Richard H. Battlefield and Classroom: Four Decades with the American Indian, 1867-1904. Edited by Robert M. Utley. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1964. The memoirs of General Richard Henry Pratt, chronicling his work in the establishment of Indian boarding schools; includes photographs from the period.

U.S. Bureau of the Census. Statistical Abstract of the United States, 1993. 113th ed. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1993.

U.S. Congress. Senate. Committee on Labor and Public Welfare. Special Subcommittee on Indian Education. Indian Education: A National Tragedy, a National Challenge. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1969.