Urban Planning and Engineering

Summary

Urban planning and engineering is an interdisciplinary field focusing on the study of land within cities, towns, and metropolitan areas and the ways in which it is used. Urban planners conduct thorough assessments of specific areas of land, often with the support of statistical tools and mapping software such as geographic information systems (GIS). They analyze historical trends affecting the land's physical, economic, and social environments. Based on these findings, planners make recommendations about ways in which land can be used more effectively in the future. Planners advise lawmakers, government agencies, commercial developers, businesses, and residents. The rapid growth of urban areas worldwide fuels the demand for professionals in the field.

Definition and Basic Principles

Urban planning and engineering is the design of cities and towns according to a plan. Such plans provide guidance on questions ranging from where to place new roads to how many supermarkets are needed in a neighborhood. Urban planning, also known as urban studies or city planning and often overlapping with regional planning, ensures that the land in a city or town will be used in a way that will benefit the largest number of people living and working there. It helps officials in local government and land developers minimize problems such as traffic, overcrowding, and urban sprawl. Technology such as artificial intelligence is increasingly important in such efforts.

Geography is a major factor affecting a city's urban planning efforts. The types of businesses that make up the local economy are another factor. Cities that rely on heavy industry, such as oil refining, for example, have different urban planning needs than those for which technology or agriculture is more important. The topic of urban planning is often associated with newer high-growth cities where vacant land is being developed for the first time. Older urban areas also must depend on planning when urban renewal is needed.

Urban engineering is a specific field within urban planning and is more commonly known as civil engineering or municipal engineering. It includes the design of transportation and its infrastructure.

Background and History

Urban planning and engineering in North America began with the development of the first large cities on the East Coast. These cities started as small settlements. As they grew, particularly in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, their roads and buildings were influenced by the design of European cities.

The use of a grid-based system for laying out streets and neighborhoods became popular in the 1800s, led by innovations in cities such as New York and Philadelphia. As railroads crossed the continent, many cities followed standard plans developed by the railroad companies. The Industrial Revolution led many cities to place the needs of manufacturing operations over those of citizens, creating pollution, overcrowding, and slums.

In the twentieth century, the US government passed several major laws to guide the development of cities and towns. The US Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD), created in 1965, addressed common problems of urban growth on a national level. The rise of suburbs, influenced by the spread of automobiles and highway systems, created new challenges for city planners. As metropolitan areas have sought ways to fight urban sprawl and to redevelop land left underutilized by a general movement toward the suburbs, the demand has grown for urban planners.

How It Works

Land-Use Study. When developing a new plan for a city or region, urban planners assess how the land is used. Planners identify who is using the land and how. In urban areas, land use is often classified into business use (retail or manufacturing) and residential use (houses and parks). Even if land is vacant, it is likely to have been business or residential property at some point in the city's history. Once planners have defined the land's users, they create a detailed report and map. The report and the map are known as the land-use study. The report contains information on the types of businesses in the area, the population living there, and how both have changed over time. The map covers geographic features such as mountains and lakes, but its primary focus is on the features added by businesses and people using the land. It includes information about transportation infrastructure, utilities such as power and sewer lines, and the location and density of public resources such as fire stations, hospitals, and libraries.

Urban Plan Development. Once the land-use study is complete, urban planners evaluate how the land's present uses meet or fail to meet the needs of its businesses and inhabitants. Most urban planners are hired by officials from city and regional governments. These officials will likely bring in urban planners to help solve problems such as traffic congestion or economic stagnation. Because of this, an urban plan often focuses on the ways in which land use could be improved. Urban planners apply their professional knowledge about the best ways an area of a city can be designed. Planners also spend time with business owners and residents to learn more about their needs. Planners consult with government officials on budget matters, as land-use changes are often financed by tax revenues. Finally, urban planners research zoning and building codes and environmental regulations. Planners must ensure that any recommended land-use changes are legal and will receive all necessary approvals.

Conflict Management. Urban planners are most frequently hired to help resolve conflicts about land use. One of the most important roles many urban planners play is mediator. As outside parties, planners gather information from all sides and incorporate it into their recommended plans. This process can involve participating in community meetings and defending findings in front of businesses, residents, and government committees that may be critical of the planners' advice.

Technology. Urban planners rely on tools such as mapping software and geographic information systems (GIS) to create plans. These systems help planners assess existing land use and forecast the impact of recommended changes. Planners must also be skilled in using databases on population statistics and trends, laws and regulations, and geographic and environmental data. Artificial intelligence (AI) is increasingly employed in areas such as traffic management to improve efficiency and reduce congestion, systems to detect water leakage, and monitoring air quality.

Applications and Products

Most professionals in the urban planning field have an area of specialty. Some of the most common areas are residential planning, transportation engineering and design, business and economic planning, historic preservation, environmental planning, and zoning and code enforcement.

Residential Planning. Planners who focus on residential issues answer questions such as whether a community offers enough housing to meet its existing needs and how these needs will change in the next ten, twenty, or fifty years. They make recommendations that guide the building of single-family homes, townhouses, and apartment buildings within a community. Residential planners also study community income levels and develop plans for housing that will be affordable as well as comfortable. A subfield within residential planning is public housing. Many cities have moved away from public housing models in which residents were concentrated within single, large-scale communities, where problems such as crime and economic blight developed. Residential planners in this subfield are creating new approaches to public housing that improve the quality of life for all community members.

Transportation Engineering and Design. If a main road is choked with traffic, does the road need to be rebuilt? Is a new highway needed, or can traffic flow be improved with technology? What is the best route for a new train line between the suburbs and downtown? Transportation engineers help cities find the best ways for people and commercial goods to get from one point to another. They evaluate whether existing structures are working and develop plans for the building of new roads, bridges, tunnels, rail lines, and public transit systems. Transportation engineers also measure the impact that the building of new structures will have on communities.

Business and Economic Planning. Planners who focus on business and economic issues work in one of the most diverse areas of urban planning. They address questions such as how a city that depended on heavy manufacturing can adapt when companies close their factories and whether a neighborhood should build a large shopping mall or several small groups of stores. Some planners specialize in guiding the long-term economic health of a community. Others specialize in the design, creation, and refurbishing of business and retail buildings. When economic planners succeed, communities can support a range of businesses that, in turn, create jobs. Some subfields of economic planning extend beyond the businesses themselves. For example, economic planners might recommend that a city build more schools to equip residents with new skills. The workforce created by these schools might attract industries to the area, which would boost economic growth in the long run.

Historic Preservation. Historic preservation tries to determine issues such as whether decrepit older houses that make up the bulk of homes in a neighborhood should be protected or torn down and what elements give a city's downtown its unique character. This field has been on the rise since the 1960s and 1970s when residents and businesses of many towns began to migrate from the urban core to newly built suburbs. Many urban planners in this field are involved with the creation of historic urban districts and neighborhoods that receive economic support from the city in exchange for preserving the architectural styles of their older buildings. Other specialists in historic preservation advise city governments on ways to reuse buildings that have historical value but have outlived their original purpose. Urban planners in this field help cities retain their distinct personalities while meeting the needs of those who live and work there and possibly attracting tourists and other visitors.

Environmental Planning. What is the most cost-effective way to clean up a river full of industrial pollutants? How can a city encourage more residents to take public transit or bike to work? Environmental planners help urban areas address questions such as these. Like the movement toward historic preservation, the importance of environmental protection has increased since the 1960s and 1970s. Businesses and city governments must comply with increasingly strict laws about air, water, and land cleanliness. There is also greater public interest in protecting the environment, which has led to changes such as the increase in citywide recycling programs. Green buildings, or those that use materials with a minimal environmental impact and seek to conserve as much energy as possible, have become a priority for many cities and are becoming a larger part of their urban plans. Planners who specialize in this field help cities benefit as much as possible from new approaches to environmental protection.

Zoning and Code Enforcement. What kinds of businesses should be built around a new sports stadium? How far from a power plant should homes be built? Zoning and code enforcement is a specialty within urban planning that focuses on the laws and regulations governing land use. It includes both the writing of new codes and the process of ensuring that governments, businesses, and residents comply with them. Zoning specialists protect an urban plan's long-term vision by defining the ways in which specific projects must follow the plan.

Careers and Course Work

Although governmental agencies employ the largest number of urban planners and engineers, consulting firms in the private sector are increasingly hiring them. Planners can increase their earning power and promotion opportunities by developing areas of specialty. Fields such as environmental sustainability and transportation engineering are areas of strong growth.

Many bachelor's and master's degree programs in urban planning exist at US colleges and universities as well as those abroad. Many students who enter the field at the graduate level hold bachelor's degrees in fields such as environmental science, geography, or political science. Coursework covers urban design, economic and environmental planning, community development, land use, and zoning and code enforcement. Related coursework might include architecture, public administration, economics, and law. A specialization in GIS would require a student to take mathematics, statistics, and computer science classes. At the graduate level, most students take internships or part-time jobs in applied settings such as government agencies.

About half of all urban planners hold a bachelor's or graduate degree in the field. However, most entry-level jobs in urban planning offered by government agencies require a master's degree. In addition, urban planners may seek certification from the American Institute of Certified Planners to increase their skills and earning potential. In some jurisdictions, planners must be registered, which involves passing examinations and verifying professional experience.

Social Context and Future Prospects

Demand for urban planners and engineers rises as populations grow and urban areas expand. Planning jobs in the private sector involving scientific and technical services are expected to see robust growth. Many jobs in the private sector can be found with consulting firms specializing in architecture and engineering services. Increased demand for environmentally sustainable development is fueling the need for urban planners with up-to-date knowledge. This type of development includes everything from green buildings to preserving natural resources. The rise of new urbanism in redeveloping older communities and building new ones will continue to foster a need for urban planners familiar with its principles. As populations grow and cities change, urban planners must manage the expansion of low-emission public transportation and other infrastructure in a way that will avoid traffic congestion and pollution.

As reliance on GIS and other technologies increases, urban planners and engineers are increasingly expected to have strong statistics and computer science backgrounds. Creating smart cities using data analytics to predict future resource and infrastructure needs is critical in managing growing populations. Professionals focusing on these areas will likely see the strongest possibilities for long-term career growth.

Bibliography

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