Ecotourism ecology

Summary: Ecotourism is defined as environmentally, socially, and culturally responsible recreational travel intended to preserve ecosystems and improve the well-being of local populations. In drawing travelers to experience natural wonders, it can promote environmental activism and stimulate the economy of local communities. However, it has been criticized for exposing habitats to the risks of high traffic and disruption.

People have found pleasure in nature throughout history, but the expansion and intensification of human activities have degraded many of the world's ecosystems. Somewhat paradoxically, the decline of nature in most people's everyday lives has driven greater demand for travel to remaining well-preserved natural areas, which in turn can threaten those same areas. Ecotourism is an effort to ensure that such travel promotes conservation and preservation rather than destruction or development. While traditional tourism may include visits to natural areas, ecotourism stresses educational as well as recreational opportunities and makes an effort to leave a minimal footprint. It often refers specifically to trips to ecosystems that are relatively untouched by humans and may be threatened or endangered. Ecotourism also typically turns attention to indigenous or local communities in or nearby the natural sites of interest, seeking to provide positive social as well as environmental impact.

Despite its positive intentions, ecotourism has proven controversial due to its very structure—an increase in visitors can put significant pressure on natural areas and on the human communities that depend closely on the resources that they provide. This became especially apparent as ecotourism boomed in popularity in the late twentieth and early twenty-first centuries. Debate continues as environmentalists, economists, social advocates, and travelers consider both the positive and negative impacts of ecotourism.

History

Traditionally, many cultures around the world have recognized the benefits of visiting natural places. A reverence for nature is a major tenet of religions such as Buddhism, Hinduism, Shintoism, and Taoism. Pilgrimages to key historical sites in the development of these philosophies can be considered an early form of ecotourism. Similarly, various native cultures of Africa, the Americas, and Australia have often placed natural areas in high regard, and certain places considered sacred attract the faithful on pilgrimages.

In Europe and its former colonies in the Western Hemisphere, some ecosystems are seen as places of special value. In many cases this can be traced to the Romantic Movement, a philosophical movement that emerged in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. It considered nature to be a source of well-being unrivaled by any object or structure created by humans. The naturalists of the Romantic Movement insisted on protecting ecosystems (although this term was introduced much later) from human encroachment, and their ideas helped give rise to the modern conservation movement.

One key figure in the latter development of this ecologically oriented movement was John Muir (1838–1914), an author and activist who helped influence the creation of the national parks system in the United States. Muir's writings enthralled Americans, who wanted to see and experience nature's beauty for themselves. Their travels were made possible by the development of the cross-country railroad system, and later by the automobile. Further improvements in travel after World War II, especially the development of jet aircraft, dramatically increased the numbers of tourists in all areas of the globe. With this trend came increased interest in visiting exotic locations to enjoy unspoiled landscapes, view unusual wildlife, and participate in recreational adventures.

The rise in tourism as a leisure activity brought economic benefits such as development and employment opportunities to many areas, but it was sometimes accompanied by negative social, cultural, and environmental impacts. Local communities and lifestyles were sometimes displaced, and ecosystems were altered with the building of hotels, roads, and other amenities for guests. The growing numbers of tourists threatened the very vistas and wildlife that lured visitors in the first place.

Meanwhile, the modern environmental movement developed in the 1970s. Growing attention to the impact of human activities—including traditional tourism—on ecosystems led activists to investigate more environmentally friendly practices. It was recognized that despite its drawbacks, tourism also had important potential to benefit preservation efforts. While low-income countries or regional governments have the option of exploiting their natural resources to provide revenue, preserving those resources can provide an ongoing alternative source of income—tourist dollars—that gives governments an incentive to protect wilderness areas. This can also foster a conservation mindset among the local population and visitors. By the 1980s, the term ecotourism had come into the vernacular as a way to refer to nature-based tourism with an emphasis on sustainability.

Ecotourism grew in popularity through the 1990s and boomed further in the early twenty-first century. True ecotourism operations employ practices that have minimal negative impacts on the environment and local cultures. Tours focus on natural destinations and rotate the routes they travel and the sites they visit. Participants gain an understanding of their surroundings and how human activity—including their own—affects the ecosystem. Local communities and indigenous populations are involved in managing ecotourism, and ideally reap economic benefits from it. The revenues produced are then used to help preserve the natural environment.

In 2020, with the outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic and lockdowns and travel restrictions, ecotourism sites closed. In 2021, however, when vaccines became available and restrictions loosened, ecotourism once again became popular. Experts predict the ecotourism market to grow 14.5 percent from 2022 to 2027.

Positive Impacts

According to the United Nations World Tourism Organization (UNWTO), by the late twentieth century tourism had become a main income source for many developing nations. Ecotourism specifically often played a major role in this strong growth, as many countries with limited economies also have relatively untouched natural areas. Tropical rainforests, savannas, and coral reefs are among the ecosystems that are particularly sought out by ecotourists. In many cases this attention has led to conservation efforts, and governments and private landowners often share the incentive to protect the ecosystems in order to sustain tourism and enhance their local economy. The activity has also led to new industries and local jobs directly or indirectly related to tourism.

For example, Costa Rica became an ecotourism leader as demand to visit its diverse ecosystems spurred the establishment of national parks and many ecologically minded facilities. Beginning in the 1990s, the Costa Rican government began offering incentives for companies investing in environmentally responsible ecotourism there. These include a certification program for hotels with a low environmental footprint, and a certification program and rating system for coastal communities based on marine water quality, access to potable drinking water, beach cleanliness, wastewater treatment, environmental education, safety, and management.

Similarly, several African countries have seen success in adopting ecotourism as a path to socioeconomic development. In Kenya, hunting-based tourism, which was popular in the early twentieth century, largely transitioned to wildlife-viewing tours in newly created national parks starting in the 1950s. After the country's independence from Great Britain in 1961, the government began to develop programs to attract international investment to develop tourism facilities that cater mainly to wildlife-viewing and beach ecotourists. Ecotourism offered a way to supplement the country's dependence on the export of agricultural products, whose prices fluctuated greatly, as a source of foreign currency. Some local communities in Kenya, South Africa, and elsewhere have partnered with both governments and nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) to offer ecotourism services.

In addition to large-scale economic benefits, proponents often note examples in which ecotourism has helped preserve notable environments or species and supported local communities. Ecotourism in the Ecuadoran rain forest helped staved off oil exploration and provided income to native peoples in the area. A former director of a mountain gorilla project in Africa credited ecotourism with the survival of mountain gorillas and their habitats; gorilla ecotourism has also provided significant revenue for local communities.

Even in developed countries, ecotourism can provide financial resources that help maintain protected areas. In the United States, funds from visitor fees at state and national parks can be used to create and maintain tools for interpretation, such as information boards and multimedia visitor centers, that in turn help educate visitors on the area's ecosystems and explain which activities should be avoided to prevent damages to the resources. Such enhancements tend to increase repeat visits.

Negative Impacts

Ecotourism is not without its drawbacks. Observers in Costa Rica, for example, have noted that although some national parks are large, most visitors want to see specific sites, which leads to overcrowding, trail erosion, and pollution at those sites. Increased visitation also raises the risk of introducing invasive species. In addition, scientists have noted changes in the behavioral patterns of local wildlife that appear to be linked to human activity. In many protected areas, the feeding and breeding behavior of birds and other animals has been affected by tourists. In national parks of the United States, the natural feeding habits of bears are affected by the presence of humans, and bears that search for food left by visitors are occasionally injured or killed by vehicles. In Africa, the proximity of ecotourist groups to mountain gorillas puts the great apes at risk from human infectious diseases.

Growth in ecotourism also promotes development outside protected areas, with attendant environmental degradation. An increase in the number of ecotourists is generally accompanied by an increase in the number of hotel rooms to accommodate them, which results in higher water consumption and wastewater disposal. In addition, not all of the people who participate in ecotourism activities have a deep understanding of the no-impact philosophy and a full appreciation of its importance; some of these people contribute to negative impacts through their actions in sensitive areas.

To complicate matters, some purported ecotourism is little more than greenwashed traditional tourism. The burgeoning popularity of ecotourism has led to a proliferation of companies offering purported ecotours that actually fail to employ sustainable practices. In the absence of regulation or even consensus on what constitutes ecotourism, some operators sell their products as ecotours despite the fact that they do not meet the standards of the term as it is usually understood. For example, one Costa Rican tourism project touted as an ecodevelopment included environmentally unfriendly amenities such as a shopping center and a golf course.

Furthermore, studies indicate that local communities often do not benefit from activities in their surrounding areas touted as ecotourism. In many countries, foreign interests own tourist facilities and recreational sites, thus ensuring that profits flow out of the local area. In Nepal, for instance, local families earn little money while serving as porters for tourists. Even in areas where locals do profit, problems can still arise. Some communities in Costa Rica, for example, have moved from a subsistence to a market economy, a transition that belies the ethic of maintaining the integrity of local cultures. In Kenya, some indigenous Maasai communities have developed resentment toward ecotourism, which they see as favoring only a few people and causing social divisions between those who benefit and those who feel affected by the intrusion of tourism. In the Ecuadorian Amazon, ecotourism has caused conflicts within some of the Secoya and Siona indigenous communities. Some see the distribution of benefits from tourism as unfair, and the adoption of customs and technologies introduced by tourists also is viewed negatively by members of these communities.

Even some practices with clear environmental benefits have proven controversial. Indigenous tribal communities in South America, Asia, and southern and eastern Africa have at times been forcibly displaced from their homelands after the areas were conserved for ecotourism. Conservation measures such as protections against poaching, while well-intentioned can result in indigenous peoples being barred from traditional hunting or fishing grounds.

Critics maintain that the concept of ecotourism is inherently flawed, and it will inevitably despoil the very areas it is intended to protect. They argue that ecotourists merely pave the way for mass tourists, people who demand the comforts of home, such as hot showers, electricity, and plastic shopping bags, while they visit remote areas. Moreover, the developing nations that offer ecotourist attractions are often the least able to invest the funds necessary to counter the negative impacts of tourism. Only a small percentage of tourist dollars may go toward the management of natural resources. Environmental advocates recommend that potential ecotourists carefully review the literature of any organization that offers ecotours to be sure that its practices and philosophy are in keeping with the goals of environmental and cultural preservation.

Regulation

There are a number of initiatives at the national and international levels whose goal is to make ecotourism a truly sustainable activity from both the ecological and social perspectives. NGOs in many developing countries have been established specifically to help design strategies for sustainable ecotourism, and universities worldwide offer courses related to ecotourism management. University research tracks on ecotourism cover areas such as ecologic, economic, socioeconomic, and cultural effects and benefits; visitor preferences; and visitor willingness to pay for visits to protected areas. Several international organizations, including the International Ecotourism Society (IES) and the UN World Tourism Organization (UNWTO), promote sustainable ecotourism and disseminate information on ecotourism research.

Interest in ecotourism's role in sustainable development and concerns regarding the detrimental effects of ecotourism's mismanagement led to the first World Ecotourism Summit, held in Quebec, Canada. A joint initiative of the UNWTO and the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), the summit was held in 2002, designated by the United Nations as the International Year of Ecotourism. The summit laid the groundwork for the Global Sustainable Tourism Criteria (GSTC), introduced in 2008 by the United Nations Foundation, the UNWTO, UNEP, and the Rainforest Alliance. The first international criteria for sustainable tourism practices, these voluntary standards were based on four key elements of sustainable tourism: effective sustainability planning, maximum social and economic benefits for local communities, minimum negative impacts on cultural heritage, and minimum negative impacts on the environment. The criteria were meant not only for ecotourism but also to guide the tourism industry in general toward sustainable practices.

In 2010 the Global Sustainable Tourism Council (GSTC), a global membership body sponsored in part by the UNWTO, began developing an accreditation program for the world's existing ecotourism certification bodies to bring ecotourism businesses into compliance with universal standards. The GSTC's accreditation criteria for industry were revised in 2016 and reviewed in 2021, when it was concluded that a revision was not necessary. The GSTC destination criteria were revised in 2019 and published in 2020. The GSTC considers such factors as electricity and energy consumption per serviced area, freshwater consumption and waste production per guest per night, and the quality of water discharged from on-site wastewater treatment facilities—to distinguish true ecotourism businesses from greenwashed enterprises. Other international criteria and accreditation regulations for ecotourism have also been developed or proposed, with varying levels of influence.

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