Landscape Ecology

Summary

Landscape ecology is a relatively new field of science that focuses on spatial heterogeneity and is the study of how ecosystems, including the built environment, are arranged and how these arrangements affect the wildlife and environmental conditions that form them. In other words, it is the study of the abundance, distribution, and origin of elements within landscapes, coupled with their impact on the ecology of an area. Landscape ecology brings a spatial perspective to the integration of people with natural ecosystems. Because of this emphasis, landscape ecology has the potential to be of significant use in ecological and urban planning and management and in solving global scale problems.

Definition and Basic Principles

Landscape ecology, also referred to as landscape science, is an interdisciplinary science. Ecology is the study of the relationships and interconnections between organisms and the environment in which they live in an attempt to determine how living (biotic) and nonliving (abiotic) patterns and processes influence organism abundance and distribution. A landscape is a diverse land area made up of repeating and comparable patterns of interconnected and interacting ecosystems. According to the International Association for Landscape Ecology, landscape ecology is the study of “spatial variation in landscapes at a variety of scales” that “includes the biophysical and societal causes and consequences of landscape heterogeneity.”

One of the most fundamental concepts of landscape ecology is that all landscapes are heterogeneous, no matter whether the environment is natural or modified or large or small. Landscape ecology most significantly deviates from classic ecological studies (and more closely resembles geography) in its focus on spatial patterns and its emphasis on broadscale research on the ecological consequences of spatial patterning on ecosystems. Because landscape ecologists study such spatial heterogeneity, landscape ecology theory and concepts are often considered to be somewhat outside the rigid structure of traditional science.

Background and History

Although landscape ecology is considered to be a young scientific discipline, the study of landscape ecology has a rich history in central and Eastern Europe and, as a concept, can be traced back to the 1930s. The German geographer Carl Troll first coined the term in 1939 based on the emergence of aerial photography as a tool of geography. Although he believed landscape ecology to be more of a philosophy than a branch of science, he also stated that it was the “perfect marriage between geography and biology.” Over the following decades, landscape ecology gained acknowledgment as a branch of ecology in its own right but primarily in central and Eastern Europe and in strong connection with land planning.

The study of landscape ecology gained a measure of global recognition in 1981 following the first international landscape ecology congress in the Netherlands. The primary problems that emerged from this congress on landscape ecology differed widely depending on the region involved, and these differences were instrumental in the development of two distinct approaches, the European and the North American.

The concept of landscape ecology in Europe had been based on environments that had undergone significant human manipulation, and research was often focused on cultural landscapes. The North American approach, however, saw a much greater integration of ecological principles, and research tended to concentrate on natural and forest landscapes, studying the relationship of disturbance, spatial patterns, and change. Research in the theory and application of landscape ecology has developed rapidly since the 1980s, as landscape ecology has moved from a regional to a global science and has been significant in ecosystem management and planning.

How It Works

The concept of landscape ecology is perhaps best clarified by its fundamental themes related to spatial heterogeneity, patterns, and the relationships between natural science and human beings. Specifically, according to the International Association for Landscape Ecology, landscape ecology research tends to concentrate on “the spatial pattern or structure of landscapes, ranging from wilderness to cities; the relationship between pattern and process in landscapes; the relationship of human activity to landscape pattern, process and change; and the effect of scale and disturbance on the landscape.” In other words, research in this area of science attempts to understand spatial heterogeneity and its influence on ecological processes, interactions within and between heterogeneous landscapes, and the management of such landscapes and spatial heterogeneity.

Landscape ecology differs from classical ecology in that it focuses on spatial patterns and broadscale research on how spatial patterning affects ecosystems. Theories of landscape ecology concentrate on the interaction and impact of people on landscape structure (ecological footprint), function, and change. Landscape structure is determined by the spatial relationships between the elements common to all landscapes: patches, edges, boundaries, corridors, and matrices. Landscape function is defined by interactions between spatial elements and patterns, such as quantity of habitat, size of landscape structures, and landscape connectivity. Landscape change is determined by modifications in the structure and function of landscape over time.

Landscape ecology aims to establish the influence of human activity on the structure and function of landscapes. It aims to highlight the interactions between people and landscapes and to provide a basis for managing landscapes, restoring degraded landscapes, recovering from landscape disturbances, and planning land use and reclamation.

Applications and Products

Landscape ecology is a young branch of ecology, incorporating theories from social, biological, and geographical sciences. Researchers and scientists in the field have stated that significant research is still required and an improved theoretical and conceptual basis needs to be developed. Once a more unified concept of landscape ecology has been established, further applications and products can be developed. Because of its emphasis on the interaction between natural landscapes and people, landscape ecology has the potential to be of significant use in ecological planning and management, and in solving global-scale problems.

Although the field of landscape ecology has been hampered by a lack of unified methodologies and theories, it has the potential to provide a true joining of people with the natural world. The practical application of landscape ecology has experienced rapid growth, especially in solving conflicts between human development and conservation of the natural landscape. The most successful applications of landscape ecology in relation to environmental and spatial planning rely heavily on effective translation and communication of base data, which have been garnered using such tools as modeling, remote sensing, and geographic information systems (GIS).

As human impact on the environment increases, the demand grows for solid scientific data that will permit more effective management of entire landscapes and will further the identification and understanding of the effects of spatial heterogeneity in relation to land and resource management. Pressure is mounting for resources to be managed as a part of the entire ecosystem rather than in and of themselves and for the temporal and spatial sensitivity of certain management and utilization activities to be considered. Generally, therefore, applications of landscape ecology can be categorized as being in nature conservation or in land management, which includes sustainable land-use decisions, forest management, ecological/environmental impact assessments, and broadscale environmental monitoring.

Landscape Planning and Land-Use Decisions. Human activity, particularly agriculture, mining, and urbanization, can fundamentally alter landscape structure by changing the dominant land cover and use from natural habitats to human-use areas. This changes the spatial patterns of natural landscapes and influences biodiversity. The study of such modifications in the structures of natural landscapes can be applied to decisions regarding the feasibility and preferred location of a development and the suitability of a specific land use. In agriculture and mining, for example, landscape ecology research tries to establish better options for the management of the environmental risks and hazards that accompany modern farming and mining practices.

Forest Management. A fundamental element of landscape ecology is the impact of forestry activity and natural processes on the spatial patterns of the forest landscape. Landscape ecology research can be applied to forest management to measure growth and decline of the world's forests, understand and minimize habitat fragmentation in forest landscapes, and determine harvesting processes and impacts on both the spatial and the temporal scale.

Ecological/Environmental Risk Assessments. Ecological and environmental risk assessments are fundamental to ecosystem management and policy development. They provide a basis from which to judge, estimate, and clarify the ecological risks associated with environmental developments, hazards, or specific land-use practices. As some hazards, such as climate change, affect large areas and can be influenced by landscape patterns, landscape ecology has been particularly applicable in addressing issues of long-term resource management over a wide range of time periods and distances.

Broadscale Environmental Monitoring. Examining and supervising large-scale landscapes is a significant application of landscape ecology, made more effective by the use of remote sensing and satellite imagery to determine landscape modifications. This application is particularly important because of large-scale problems such as climate change and global warming and their effects on biodiversity.

Careers and Course Work

Many universities offer science-based undergraduate and postgraduate degrees in landscape ecology. Most commonly, students who wish to pursue a career in landscape ecology will possess an ecological or geographical background. Because landscape ecology is widely recognized as an interdisciplinary field, students can also come from such varied backgrounds as the social sciences, architecture, animal behavior, plant biology, or conservation. Following graduation, students should have a solid understanding of spatial heterogeneity and its influences on natural processes, and the importance of landscape ecology to conservation management. In addition, because landscape ecologists provide the science-based data used for management and planning of areas at a variety of scales, students should gain knowledge and experience in the use of tools such as modeling, remote sensing, and geographic information systems. Students who study landscape ecology can pursue careers in environmental consulting, environmental advocacy, and other environmental fields in the private sector, nongovernmental organizations, and the government, particularly in the development of conservation proposals and environmental management plans.

Social Context and Future Prospects

The world's human population is continuing to grow and the impact of human activity on the natural environment is increasing. To meet the challenge, landscape ecology must become a more holistic science, oriented toward solving problems on both the small and the large scale. It is important, particularly given the increasing global population, that concepts such as urban and natural sustainability are approached in an interdisciplinary and holistic way.

One of the most significant areas for future landscape ecology research is climate change. Models of climate change have predicted significant changes, particularly in relation to the frequency and timing of large-scale weather events. Climate change will affect the structure and function of landscapes and will alter land-use patterns and influence entire ecosystems. Scientific inquiry is playing an important role in the debate on climate change and in finding solutions. The strategies for combating global climate change must incorporate concepts and research in landscape ecology. Examples of how landscape concepts are influenced by climate change include land-use changes, such as modifying agricultural practices or using land for carbon sequestration. The continued impact of greenhouse gases will fundamentally change landscapes for many years and perhaps forever. Landscape ecology can increase the scientific understanding of landscape resilience, recovery, and disturbance. Such information can provide an important framework for the sustainable management of landscapes and ecosystems.

Bibliography

Burel, Françoise, and Jacques Baudry. Landscape Ecology: Concepts, Methods, and Applications. Enfield: Science, 2003. Print.

Farina, Almo. Principles and Methods in Landscape Ecology: Towards a Science of the Landscape. Boston: Kluwer Academic, 2006. Print.

Harker, Karly J. et.al. "Perspectives from Landscape Ecology Can Improve Environmental Impact Assessment. Facets, 2021, vol. 6, doi:10.1139/facets-2020-0049. Accessed 20 March 2022.

Hong, Sun-Kee, et al., eds. Landscape Ecological Applications in Man-Influenced Areas. Dordrecht: Springer, 2008. Print.

Turner, Monica, Robert Gardner, and Robert O'Neill. Landscape Ecology in Theory and Practice: Pattern and Process: New York: Springer, 2001. Print.

Wiens, John, et al., eds. Foundation Papers in Landscape Ecology. New York: Columbia U P, 2007. Print.

Wu, Jianguo, and Richard Hobbs, eds. Key Topics in Landscape Ecology. New York: Cambridge U P, 2007. Print.