Adolescent ethnic identity

Significance: Racial or ethnic identity is awareness of belonging to an ethnic group that shapes a person’s thoughts, feelings, and behavior. How an individual feels about himself or herself as a member of a racial or ethnic group and how the person perceives other groups significantly affect the successful interaction between and among individuals and social groups. Because adolescence is typically a significant period in identity formation, ethnic identity may take on heightened importance during this developmental stage.

Sociologists Jean Phinney and Hari Alipuria contend that for all individuals, but especially those who are not part of North America’s white majority, integrating a sense of ethnic identity into an overall sense of personal identity is an important task of late adolescence that may affect the establishment of a coherent occupational, ideological, or interpersonal identity. Much research has particularly focused on ethnic identity development among African Americans, also studies of other groups have also been conducted.

Ethnic identity has several components. The first is whether the individual identifies himself or herself as belonging to a racial/ethnic group. The second component is the individual’s knowledge of and engagement in behaviors characteristic of a racial/ethnic group, such as celebrating holidays specific to that group, following the group’s patterns of speech and dress, and preferring traditional foods. Feelings about the individual’s ethnic group membership make up the third component. Individuals may value and feel positively about their ethnic group or react negatively to belonging to a certain racial/ethnic group. The final component is the importance placed on racial/ethnic group membership.

Personal Identity

To understand how racial/ethnic identity is formed, it is necessary to understand the general process of identity formation. Identity is referred to as a sense of self, including an individual’s commitment to certain values, roles, and life pursuits. According to sociologist James Marcia, it is possible to determine an individual’s identity status based on the degree to which he or she has made occupational, ideological, and interpersonal relationship commitments and the degree to which he or she has engaged in a sustained search or exploration in the process. Individual identity status varies and may be one of four types. Identity achieved youth are those who have established a coherent sense of self by making commitments after a period of experimentation. Such an individual might say, “It took me a while to figure it out, but now I really know what I want for a career.” Individuals in the stage of moratorium are those who are in the process of exploration but who have not yet made certain commitments to values or ideological beliefs. Such a person might say, “There are so many different political parties and ideals; I need to figure it all out before I decide which to follow.” Identity foreclosure describes those individuals who have made commitments without exploring alternatives. Such an individual might say, “I have never really questioned my religion. If it is right for my parents, it must be right for me.” Finally, diffused individuals are those who have made no ideological commitments and have not yet begun the process of exploration. Such an individual might say, “I have not chosen the occupation that I really want to go into, but I am working as a food server until something better comes along.”

Sociologist Erik Erikson asserts that adolescence is a critical time for identity formation. However, identity is not static, and an individual’s sense of self may shift and change over time. Nonetheless, most research suggests that identity achievement is the most mature resolution and diffusion the least, with foreclosure and moratorium being intermediate steps.

The Process of Ethnic Identity Development

Sociologists Jean Phinney and Doreen Rosenthal suggest that ethnic identity development parallels general identity development. They have identified three distinct stages of ethnic identity, which, like the identity statuses identified by Marcia, involve the processes of exploration and commitment. Adolescents with an unexamined ethnic identity (who resemble foreclosed adolescents) have simply internalized the values and attitudes of the dominant culture, with little understanding of issues related to their ethnicity. Such an individual might say, “I don’t pay attention to ethnicity; I just try to fit in with the crowd.” Those in an ethnic identity search (who are similar to those in the moratorium stage) are exploring the meaning of their ethnicity and may experience a growing conflict between the values of the dominant culture and those of their ethnic group. Such a person might say, “Sometimes I feel like I don’t fit in; family and community mean more to me than individuality, but individuality is necessary for success in the larger society.” Finally, adolescents with an achieved ethnic identity have a clear sense of their ethnicity. They feel a sense of belonging to their racial/ethnic group and emotionally identify with it. Such an individual might say, “I am proud to be a member of this group; I will pass the traditions and customs on to my own children some day.”

Developmentalist Sheila Marshall notes that parental involvement may speed up the process of ethnic identity development among adolescents. Ethnic socialization is the process through which parents attempt to teach their children about their ethnicity and special experiences they may encounter within the broader society (such as discrimination), given their ethnic background. Ethnic socialization in minority families focuses on understanding the individual’s own culture, getting along in mainstream society, and dealing with racism, according to sociologist A. Wade Boykin. Interestingly, although ethnic socialization speeds up the process of ethnic identity formation, it does not appear to lead adolescents to a stronger sense of ethnic identity.

Ethnic Identity of Minority and Majority Youth

Although many people assume that only individuals in minority groups develop ethnic identities, white individuals also develop a sense of ethnicity. Research on whether racial/ethnic minority or white adolescents have more difficulty forming a stable sense of self has revealed more similarities than differences, with one exception. Having a strong ethnic identity is associated with higher self-esteem and stronger self-efficacy among minority youth, but not among white youth, according to Phinney and Alipuria. Therefore, the importance of establishing a strong, stable ethnic identity appears most significant for minority rather than majority group members.

Relations between Minority and Majority Groups

Identity development is largely affected by social context. Therefore, adolescent ethnic identity development cannot be understood without an examination of the environmental and social contexts in which youth function. Often, these contexts include racial stereotypes, few role models, and rewards or punishments for identifying with one’s ethnic group rather than the majority white group.

According to Phinney and others, minority youth have four possibilities for dealing with their ethnicity on a social context level: assimilation (trying to adopt the majority culture’s norms and standards, while rejecting those of their own racial/ethnic group); marginality (living within the majority culture but feeling estranged and outcast); separation (associating with members of their own racial/ethnic group and rejecting the majority culture); and biculturalism (maintaining ties to both the majority and minority cultures).

Minority youth are often encouraged to assimilate into the dominant white culture, but those who do are sometimes ridiculed by members of their own group. Those who attempt to assimilate may be excluded from majority society based on physical appearance or other ethnic traits. This can lead to marginality, where minority youth feel that they are on the edge of mainstream society and will never be accepted as a full member. Separation is a strategy adopted by many minority youth, particularly African Americans, who may experience severe prejudice and discrimination. Biculturalism is often a more successful approach than separation or assimilation. Biculturalism occurs when youth know and understand the norms of more than one culture, and successfully move between them by selecting the appropriate norms depending on the situation.

Bibliography

Boykin, A. Wade. "Black Child Socialization: A Conceptual Framework." Black Children: Social, Educational, and Parental Environments. Ed. Harriette Pipes McAdoo and John Lewis McAdoo. Beverly Hills: Sage, 1985. Print.

Erikson, Erik. Identity: Youth and Society. New York: Norton, 1968. Print.

Lin, Annie I., and Derald Wing Sue. "Adolescent Ethnic Identity." Encyclopedia of Cross-Cultural School Psychology, edited by Caroline S. Clauss-Ehlers, Springer, 2010, pp. 85–88.

Marcia, James. "Common Processes Underlying Ego Identity, Cognitive/Moral Development, and Individuation." Self, Ego, and Identity: Integrative Approaches. Ed. D. K. Lapsley and F. C. Power. New York: Wiley, 1988. Print.

Phinney, Jean. "Ethnic Identity in Adolescents and Adults: A Review of Research." Psychological Bulletin 108.3 (1990): 499–514. Print.

Phinney, Jean, and Doreen Rosenthal. "Ethnic Identity in Adolescence: Process, Context, and Outcome." Advances in Adolescent Development. Ed. Gerald R. Adams, Thomas P. Gullota, and Raymond Montemayor. Newbury Park: Sage, 1992. Print.