Illuminated manuscript
An illuminated manuscript is a handwritten text from the medieval period that features vibrant colors and intricate designs, often incorporating gold or silver to create a visually striking effect. The term "illuminated" derives from the Latin word "illuminare," meaning "to enlighten," reflecting the manuscripts' decorative embellishments. These texts, primarily produced in monasteries, typically contained religious content such as biblical texts and prayer manuals, though some also preserved ancient Greek and Roman literature, as well as works on science and history. The creation of these manuscripts was a meticulous process, often conducted by a team of monks, and involved detailed illustrations, elaborate lettering, and decorative borders.
The earliest illuminated manuscripts date back to between 390 and 660 CE, with noteworthy examples including the Garima Gospels. By the seventh century, styles influenced by Celtic and Anglo-Saxon art began to emerge, particularly in the decoration of initial letters. The demand for illuminated manuscripts grew in the twelfth century, leading to the rise of professional scribes in urban centers. However, their production decreased significantly after the invention of the printing press in the mid-fifteenth century, which made books more accessible and affordable. Today, some artisans continue to create illuminated manuscripts using traditional techniques for educational, artistic, or religious purposes.
Illuminated manuscript
An illuminated manuscript is a handwritten medieval text embellished with brightly colored, decorative inscriptions and images. Named from the Latin illuminare, meaning "to enlighten" or "light up," the manuscripts typically incorporated gold or silver into their design, giving the impression they were "illuminated." The texts are considered works of medieval art and are noted for their miniature illustrations, elaborate lettering, and intricate, decorative borders. Creating an illuminated manuscript was a slow, painstaking process, usually performed in monasteries. Most illuminated manuscripts were copies of religious texts, such as books from the Bible or prayer manuals. Some manuscripts, however, were reproductions of classical Greek and Roman literature or works of history, astronomy, and science. In this way, the manuscripts played a vital role in preserving the knowledge of the ancient and medieval worlds.
Background
After the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in the fifth century Common Era (CE), most of Europe entered a period of political and social instability. The monastery was one of the few places to maintain a semblance of order during this time of chaos. Religious orders kept alive a tradition of literacy and knowledge that was in danger of being extinguished elsewhere. To spread the Christian faith, literate monks sought out and copied religious books, prayer manuals, and biblical texts. They also reproduced what works of classical literature, science, and culture they could find. In this way, many Greek and Roman antiquity writings were copied and preserved.
With the invention of the printing press still centuries away, copying books was a slow, tedious process done entirely by hand. The word manuscript is derived from this era and combines the Latin words manus (hand) with scriptus (writing), meaning "written by hand." Some of the original religious works copied by the monks came from Eastern Christianity, which was still flourishing in Constantinople and North Africa at the time. Northern European monks combined the Roman and Eastern artistic influences found in these works with their own Celtic elements to produce manuscripts with an elaborate, decorative style.
Overview
The earliest surviving works that can be described as illuminated manuscripts were the Garima Gospels, two books from the Ethiopian Christian church estimated to have been written between 390 and 660 CE. In the seventh century, Anglo-Saxon and Irish scribes began using large, embellished initial letters in their manuscripts. These capital letters contained interlocking geometric designs and stylized images heavily influenced by Celtic and Anglo-Saxon art. The decoration of the letters eventually extended into the margins and borders of the texts. The images inside the letters also evolved to include small, detailed pictures of religious figures or historical scenes. These small pictures were often made with bright red pigments, one shade of which was called minium in Latin. As a result, the tiny scenes were referred to as miniatures.
The earliest illuminated manuscripts were almost always religious works, usually the Gospels or other books from the Bible. One of the oldest Irish manuscripts, the Cathach of St. Columba, was a collection of psalms written in Gaelic and Latin around 600 CE. In most instances, the books were produced by a team of monks working in unison; one monk acted as the author, one as the scribe, and another as the illustrator. However, one of the most famous examples of an illuminated manuscript was the work of one man. His name was Eadfrith, the Bishop of Lindisfarne in northern England from 698 to 721. Eadfrith transcribed and illustrated the Lindisfarne Gospels, a 516-page manuscript that took an estimated five to ten years to complete. He used about ninety colors to make the book's detailed illustrations, embellishing his lettering with intricate spiral and geometric designs and symbolic images of the gospels' four authors. Since literacy was rare in the era, the ornate writing style and pictures helped convey the message of the text to those who could not read. The gospels survived two Viking raids on the Lindisfarne monastery and were displayed at the British Library in London.
Most illuminated manuscripts were written on vellum, a parchment made from sheep or calf skin. The scribe would begin the work by marking the margins of the page and copying the text. When that was finished, the illustrator would draw outlines for the pictures and lettering. Since many manuscripts used gold or silver leaf in their designs, these colors were added first. To make the illuminated effect, these colors needed to be burnished to a shine, a process that could damage other colors if they were applied beforehand. The next step was to paint the pictures, borders, and decorative lettering with a palette of natural colors made from minerals and vegetable extracts. The pages were folded, sewn together, and bound in a cover of leather or wood. The Lindisfarne Gospels originally had a cover made of precious metal and jewels, but it was lost over the centuries.
While monks produced most illuminated manuscripts for use in monasteries, some were commissioned by wealthy patrons. By the twelfth century, the desire for books increased among the learned upper classes, leading to the creation of professional scribes. These scribes usually worked in urban centers and produced books at clients' request. Among the most in-demand manuscripts were collections of prayers, psalms, and liturgical calendars called a Book of Hours. These books were used for private devotions by those fortunate enough to be able to read. A person desiring a book would place an order with a bookseller, who would hire a scribe and illustrator to produce it. Although professional scribes streamlined the process a bit, it was still a time-consuming and expensive endeavor. By the fourteenth century, an illuminated manuscript took about two years to complete and cost the modern equivalent of several thousand dollars.
The growth of universities and literacy across the medieval world also increased the demand for books, especially works of classical literature, history, astronomy, and science. As more people learned to read, there was a greater call for books written in local languages rather than Latin. In the fourteenth century, books of myths and legends, works of fiction, travel manuals, and cookbooks became popular requests. The production of illuminated manuscripts continued until the mid-fifteenth century, when German printer Johannes Gutenberg invented a printing press that used a system of movable type. Gutenberg's invention made printing quicker and cheaper, eliminating the need for handwritten manuscripts but increasing literacy rates and the spread of knowledge. In the twenty-first century, illuminated manuscripts are sometimes created as artistic, educational, or religious projects. They are often created using authentic traditional techniques.
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