Medieval literature
Medieval literature encompasses a vast body of work produced roughly between the fourth and late fifteenth centuries, marking a transformative period in English storytelling. Initially dominated by Old English, the language evolved post-Norman Conquest, incorporating Anglo-Norman influences and later transitioning to Middle English. During this era, a diverse array of cultural narratives coexisted, with writers often retelling tales of mythological figures like King Arthur and biblical stories. Notably, the epic poem *Beowulf*, which blends pagan themes with Christian elements, found its first written form around 700 AD but gained recognition only in the 19th century.
Among the prominent figures of Medieval literature is Geoffrey Chaucer, celebrated for *The Canterbury Tales*, a collection that portrays various characters, each sharing stories that reflect societal norms and personal quirks. Other influential authors include John Gower, known for works like *Confessio Amantis*, and William Langland, whose allegorical poem *Piers the Plowman* examines the human quest for truth. John Lydgate, another significant poet, wrote extensively, including historical narratives and moral allegories. Together, these writers contributed richly to the tapestry of Medieval literature, reflecting the complexities of their time through humor, allegory, and moral inquiry. The period's literature continues to intrigue scholars and readers alike, revealing insights into the human experience across different cultural contexts.
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Medieval literature
The Medieval period runs from the fourth century to the late fifteenth century—roughly 350 to 1475—ending when the English Renaissance begins. The people of England spoke Old English during the early part of the period. Anglo-Norman and Middle English were spoken after the Norman Conquest of 1066. England was closely tied to France, and for a long time French was the language of the ruling elite and literature.
Many writers borrowed from the past, retelling stories of King Arthur, mythology, Bible stories, and fables. Many cultures coexisted, each bringing their histories to English literature. One of the most famous works, Beowulf, existed for centuries as oral tales, though its first written form in Old English dates to about 700. By the thirteenth century, most English literature was written in Latin, the language of the educated. In time, a number of fourteenth-century authors decided to write in English. Geoffrey Chaucer, John Gower, William Langland, and John Lydgate are among the foremost authors of their day.
Overview
The ancient tale of Beowulf, a monster who attacks human warriors in their settlements, was widely circulated orally and dates to about 500. A version of the epic poem was first written down by an anonymous Anglo-Saxon poet about 700. The author altered the original pagan tales by incorporating a Christian mindset. Beowulf remained relatively unknown until nineteenth-century scholars began to study and translate it. Because of its obscurity, it had no effect on the literature that followed it.
Geoffrey Chaucer, author of The Canterbury Tales, is probably the most well-known of the Medieval writers. He wrote his collected stories of pilgrims on the road from London to Canterbury Cathedral in English, though French was the prevailing language of literature at the time. Chaucer's characters include a monk, prioress, knight, merchant, and miller. Each pilgrim agrees to tell a story to pass the time on the journey, and in doing so both illustrates the times and the pilgrim's true character. His Wife of Bath is a particularly bawdy and vibrant character. She makes very pointed comments about marriage and the role of women. The knight and his squire illustrate the ideals of chivalry. Several characters poke fun at one another or display outright hostility. Piety is examined and found wanting in several characters. Chaucer's major work stands out among the works of the time for its humor, in particular the way Chaucer includes a fictional version of himself in the work—and mocks himself mercilessly. Chaucer skewers many social conventions of the time through his characters and the tales they choose to tell. As was common at the time, some of the tales are retellings of legends and stories from antiquity.
John Gower and William Langland were contemporaries of Chaucer. Gower's works greatly influenced later English writers. He wrote his major works in English, French, and Latin. Among these are Vox clamantis, his major Latin poem; In Praise of Peace, a poem in English; and Confessio amantis. He said he wrote the latter in English at the express request of King Richard II, but he was also likely influenced by Chaucer's success. The central character of Confessio amantis is the Lover, who is growing old and despondent because he has not found love. He interacts with Venus, the goddess of love, and with those who serve her. Her priest is assigned to hear about the Lover's sins and listen to his story. Much of the ensuing conversation deals with the seven major sins—pride, envy, anger, sloth, avarice, gluttony, and lechery—and the stories included are widely varied.
Little is known about Langland, though he may have been a cleric. Because Langland continually revised his life's work, Piers the Plowman, it exists in three versions, the A-text, B-text, and C-text, each longer than the last. A and B have been dated to the 1360s and 1370s while the C-text is believed to date to the 1380s. Most study focuses on the B-text. This satirical and allegorical poem eyes almost all aspects of life in medieval England. A narrator, Will, dreams that he is embarking on a series of quests. The object of his efforts changes over time, however. Will first searches for truth and salvation, then adjusts his goal: to do well, do better, and do best. Next, he seeks faith, hope, and charity. The author includes numerous symbols of Christianity, ranging from sheep to hermits. Because this is an allegory, Will—the name itself refers to human will—begins the quest almost with a clean slate, the equivalent of a child who has yet to make an impact on the world; by the conclusion, Will is essentially an old man nearing the end of his life. Even when Will's quest comes to an end, however, the poem announces a new search. The author is not simply interested in answering questions; he is more concerned with seeking answers. Langland illustrates that the Christian search for salvation is ongoing.
English priest John Lydgate was regarded as the most important poet of his time. His courtly poems include The Complaint of the Black Knight, The Flour of Courtesye, and The Temple of Glas. His unfinished long poem, Reson and Sensuallyte, is an allegory of morality and love. Some of his writing reflects his admiration of Chaucer, whose work he at times emulated. The two writers never met, though Lydgate knew Chaucer's son and granddaughter, Thomas and Alice. About 1417 Lydgate wrote Ballade at the Departyng of Thomas Chaucer into France. He also wrote a Canterbury tale of his own, The Siege of Thebes, as a companion to "The Knight's Tale." His numerous historical works include the Troy Book, The Fall of Princes, and The Lives of Saint Alban and Saint Amphibal. He also wrote fables, prayers, and satires. The body of Lydgate's work totals nearly 150,000 lines.
Bibliography
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