Khawarij
The Khawarij, often referred to as Kharijites, were a radical sect that emerged during the early years of Islam, specifically in the aftermath of the First Fitna, a civil conflict that took place from 656 to 661 CE. This group, whose name translates to "the rebels" or "the seceders," broke away from the main body of Muslims due to their extreme interpretations of Islamic teachings and their rejection of the established leadership under Ali ibn Abi Talib, the fourth caliph. The Khawarij considered both Ali and his rival, Muawiyah, to be infidels for their acceptance of arbitration to settle their disputes, which they viewed as a betrayal of Islamic principles.
Despite their initial influence, the Khawarij faced significant military setbacks and internal divisions, eventually splintering into multiple sects. Their most notable act was an assassination attempt against Ali, which succeeded in mortally wounding him. The decline of the Khawarij as a cohesive movement occurred within two centuries, but their extremist ideologies have been compared in modern times to groups like ISIL, due to similarities in their militant and unilateral interpretations of Islam. The legacy of the Khawarij is significant in the context of early Islamic history, particularly as their actions and beliefs contributed to the enduring Sunni-Shia divide within Islam.
Khawarij
The Khawarij, usually anglicized as "the Kharijites," were members of an early Islamic sect that emerged in the aftermath of the conflict known as the First Fitna, a civil war that began in 656 CE and ended in 661 CE. Noted for their extreme interpretations of Islamic doctrines, the Khawarij were the first group to break from the established conventions of Islam in favor of an alternate vision of the religion's principles. The group's Arabic name translates into English as "the rebels" or "the seceders," owing to their uprising against the rule of Ali ibn Abi Talib (c. 600 CE–661 CE), the fourth ruler of the Rashidun Caliphate.
Though the Khawarij wielded considerable political influence during Islam's early history, the group effectively disappeared within about two centuries of its initial rise. However, its controversial views and beliefs did have a noteworthy effect on the subsequent development of Islam. Some contemporary commentators and Islamic scholars have compared the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL) to the Khawarij, owing to the extreme doctrines and militant unilateralism espoused by both groups.
Background: The Rashidun Caliphate and the First Fitna
The Rashidun Caliphate was the original Islamic caliphate, established circa 632 CE following the death of the Prophet Muhammad (c. 570 CE–632 CE). It was ruled by a succession of four caliphs, culminating with the leadership of Ali ibn Abi Talib (c. 601 CE–680 CE), who, in this context, is commonly referred to simply as "Ali."
Ali's claim to the leadership of the caliphate was opposed by Muawiyah ibn Abi Sufyan (602 CE–680 CE), resulting in a civil war known as the First Fitna. In an attempt to resolve the First Fitna, Ali and Muawiyah agreed to settle their dispute via arbitration, in accordance with the stated principles of Islam's holy book, the Qur'an. However, dissenters from the ranks of Ali's army mutinied during the arbitration process due to what they felt was a betrayal of trust stemming from a deal brokered by the two arbitrators representing Ali and Muawiyah. These dissenters soon became known as the Khawarij, and continued their rebellion even after Ali was declared to be the rightful leader of the Rashidun Caliphate.
The Rise and Decline of the Khawarij
The Khawarij espoused a belief in several specific premises. First, they considered both Ali and Muawiyah, and all who accepted the arbitration process undertaken during the First Fitna, to be infidels (or, unbelievers of the faith). As a result, they regarded Ali's leadership of the Rashidun Caliphate to be inherently invalid, and believed they were entirely justified in removing him and his supporters from power by any means necessary. Members of the Khawarij felt that faith alone was insufficient in order for a person to be considered a good Muslim; for the Khawarij, action was also necessary, and they took it upon themselves to continue their fight against the established rulership of the caliphate.
Regarded as extremists by the mainstream Muslims of the era, the Khawarij nonetheless continued in their efforts to spread their viewpoints, even after suffering major military defeats and internal differences of theological opinion that led to the group splitting into fifteen individual sects. Despite these obstacles and setbacks, the Khawarij succeeded in carrying out one act of great political significance when they attempted the audacious triple assassination of Ali, Muawiyah, and Amr ibn al-As (ca. 585 CE–664 CE)—a prominent military leader—during morning prayers in January, 661 CE. While Muawiyah and Amr survived their respective attacks, Ali was mortally wounded by a Khawarij assassin and died within days. All three perpetrators were eventually captured, tried, and put to death after being found guilty of treasonous crimes.
While the Khawarij won over some who admired their rejection of the undemocratic political jockeying that marked the struggle for the control of the Rashidun Caliphate, orthodox Islamic theologians branded their interpretation of the Qur'an as dangerously misguided. Following Ali's assassination, the Rashidun Caliphate fragmented and dissolved, and Muawiyah emerged as the leader of a new empire known as the Umayyad Caliphate. The various Khawarij sects persisted in their efforts to restore what they believed to be the rightful incarnation of the Islamic caliphate, but were ultimately undone by a combination of impetuous, bloodthirsty behavior and disunity of purpose. Less than two centuries after the First Fitna, the Khawarij, as an organized movement, waned from existence.
Influence and Legacy of the Khawarij
The Khawarij break from unified mainstream Islam foreshadowed one of the definitive events in the religion's history: the Sunni-Shia split. Put simply, Sunni Muslims recognize Ali as the rightful fourth leader of the Rashidun Caliphate, and accept the legitimacy of all three of the leaders that preceded him. Shia Muslims, on the other hand, regard the rule of the first three leaders of the Rashidun Caliphate as unlawful. Some Islamic historians have argued that the Khawarij uprising laid more of the groundwork for the subsequent Sunni-Shia split than is commonly acknowledged.
Bibliography
Abualrub, Jalal. "Part 1: When Hardcore Khawarij Call Sister Groups 'Khawarij.'" Call to Islam. Call to Islam 2012. Web. 20 Sept. 2015. http://www.calltoislam.com/index.php?option=com‗content&view=article&id=1292:are-isis-salafis-or-following-the-call-of-muhammad-ibn-abdul-wahhab&catid=86&Itemid=132
Al-Rasheed, Madawi, Carool Kersten, and Marat Shterin, eds. Demystifying the Caliphate: Historical Memory and Contemporary Contexts. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012. Print.
Delman, Edward. "An Anti-ISIS Summit in Mecca." The Atlantic. The Atlantic Monthly Group. Web. 20 Sept. 2015. http://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2015/02/ISIS-summit-Islam-Obama/386303/
Kenney, Jeffrey T. The Emergence of the Khawarij: Religion and the Social Order in Early Islam. Santa Barbara, CA: University of California Press, 1990. Print.
Mutahhari, Ayatullah Murtadha. "The Basis of the Opinions of the Khawarij." Polarization Around the Character of Ali ibn Abi Talib. Ahlul Bayt Digital Islamic Library Project. Web. 20 Sept. 2015. http://www.al-islam.org/polarization-around-character-ali-ibn-abi-talib-ayatullah-murtadha-mutahhari/basis-opinions-khawarij
---. "The Decline of the Khawarij." Polarization Around the Character of Ali ibn Abi Talib. Ahlul Bayt Digital Islamic Library Project. Web. 20 Sept. 2015. http://www.al-islam.org/polarization-around-character-ali-ibn-abi-talib-ayatullah-murtadha-mutahhari/decline-khawarij
---. "The Distinguishing Features of the Khawarij." Polarization Around the Character of Ali ibn Abi Talib. Ahlul Bayt Digital Islamic Library Project. Web. 20 Sept. 2015. http://www.al-islam.org/polarization-around-character-ali-ibn-abi-talib-ayatullah-murtadha-mutahhari/distinguishing-features
---. "How the Khawarij Came into Existence." Polarization Around the Character of Ali ibn Abi Talib. Ahlul Bayt Digital Islamic Library Project. Web. 20 Sept. 2015. http://www.al-islam.org/polarization-around-character-ali-ibn-abi-talib-ayatullah-murtadha-mutahhari/how-khawarij-came