Iceland Boreal birch forests and alpine tundra

• Category: Forest Biomes; Grassland, Tundra, and Human Biomes.
• Geographic Location: North Atlantic Ocean.

Summary: The sparse vegetative cover across most of Iceland, along with increasing concerns about soil erosion, put sustainable human practices under increased scrutiny here.

The Republic of Iceland is an island nation located in the mid-subarctic region of the North Atlantic Ocean, just south of the Arctic Circle. With a total land area of 64,089 square miles (103,125 square kilometers), it is the second-largest European island, and the 18th-largest island in the world.

Iceland’s predominant biome is tundra; the country lies within a subarctic ecoregion of boreal mountain birch forest and alpine tundra that is unique to the countries of northwestern Europe, also including Scandinavia and Greenland. The climate here is temperate and is considered marginal, as differences of only a degree can trigger irreversible losses in vegetation and topsoil. The island phytogeography is sparse, reflecting both its isolation from the larger land masses of North America and Europe, and the ravages of past periods of intense glaciation. Summers and winters are chilly and damp, with extremes of sunlight and darkness.

Flora

Only about 25 percent of the land on Iceland is covered with vegetation; several hundred species are found, half of which can be dated to the last ice age. There is evidence to suggest that Iceland once supported broadleaf and conifer forests; however, with successive periods of glaciation beginning with the Pleistocene era, primitive forests passed to extinction and were replaced by expanses of downy birches (Betula pubescens). Pockets of mixed forests survived in nunatak mountain areas, the ice-free rocky locations that jutted out from early glacial surroundings to the present day. Iceland is noted for sparse land cover that includes ferns, club mosses, willows, herbs with free petals, gentians, daisies, monocotyledons, and water plants.

In the 9th century, a widespread volcanic eruption in the southern region of Iceland left a thick blanket of ash that covered much of the country. This deposit, called tephra, created a baseline from which the ecosystem impacts can be measured by archaeologists. Before European colonization, nearly 60 percent of the island was covered in forests of dwarf birch (Betula pubescens), mosses, bogs, heaths, and wetlands of varied grasses and sedges. Willow (Salix spp.), poplar (Populus spp.), and ash (Sorbus acuparia) were also native at that time. Today, just 28 percent of the total land area of Iceland is covered with vegetation, with only approximately 1 percent covered with woody species.

Fauna

The arctic fox (Alopex lagopus) is the island nation’s only indigenous land mammal. Thousands of marine mammals, however, regularly find refuge along the coastal fjords and cliffs. Atlantic salmon and other pelagic fish are a fundamental component of the food web here.

Iceland’s location in the mid-subarctic region of the North Atlantic Ocean provides an ideal location for migrating birds. Its stark vegetation and chilly summer climate is not conducive to extensive speciation, but the southern and western regions are known for remarkably mild winters, and Iceland’s extensive cliffs and coastlines are important rookeries for European and North American birds.

Today, the European grey heron migration from Norway is an attraction for tourists. Cliff birds include the auk, puffins, guillemots, kittiwakes, fulmars, gannets, and sea eagles; farther inland, marshes and heaths provide sufficient habitats for various species of gulls and loons. Inland freshwater lakes are populated by a variety of dabbling and diving duck species including eiders, long-tails, harlequins, and the common scoter. Stilts and waders can be found in the marshes and lowland regions. Seven of the bird species on the island are globally threatened.

Threats

The ecological disruption caused by wide-scale clearing of the land is of great concern to Icelanders. Early settlers used fire as a primary agent to transform the land for agricultural use and pastureland, all in less than 50 years. Trees were also burned for charcoal, a substance used extensively in iron smithing and the whetting of scythes for hay harvesting.

Attempts to reforest the island have included the introduction of the nootka lupine and lyme grasses—with only marginal success. Continuing erosion of degraded landscapes is directly correlated to the impacts of Viking settlement, with particular periods of degradation noted during the 15th and 17th centuries. Contemporary models of climate change suggest that at the time of the Viking migration, the island was undergoing a climate-induced process of erosion and land degradation that was accelerated by grazing and farming. Today, nearly 700,000 ewes and 53,000 horses graze on sensitive soils and vegetation. Further erosion is caused by frequent volcanic activity on the island, which leaves areas open to soil degredation.

As a member of the European Economic Area (EEA), Iceland has in recent years strengthened its management of land resources and environmental planning, in accord with EEA standards. Key industries include fisheries, hydropower, geothermal energy, and ecotourism; each is being examined with an eye toward ecological sustainability. The Ministry for the Environment published a national environmental program in 1993 titled “Towards Sustainable Development,” and a National Sustainable Development Action Plan in 1997.

Many of Iceland’s wetlands are protected under the Ramsar Convention. However, several of these wetlands are at risk from excessive drainage for farming; this tends to reduce wetland area available for birds. Plans to build additional hydroelectric plants are also under scrutiny, as this would divert waterways, stress anadromous fish species, and potentially damage some floristic habitats. Iceland’s largest plant was built between 2003 and 2008. Designed to supply electricity to an aluminum smelter, the Kárahnjúkar Hydroelectric Power Station was built with five dams and three reservoirs. The plant has been the subject of severe criticism in several forms, including a 2009 documentary. Environmentalists noted that the project destroyed nesting grounds and migration routes for migratory birds like the pink-footed goose.

At the same time, threats from climate change may bring to Iceland a similar dramatic glacial melt as is occurring in Greenland; this would only add to erosion and concerns over soil stability and habitat vigor.

Bibliography

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