Canada

Region: North America

Official language: English, French

Population: 38,794,813 (2024 est.)

Nationality: Canadian(s) (noun), Canadian (adjective)

Land area: 9,093,507 sq km (3,511,021 sq miles)

Water area: 891,163 sq km (344,080 sq miles)

Capital: Ottawa

National anthem: "O Canada", by Adolphe-Basile Routhier [French], Robert Stanley Weir [English]/Calixa Lavallee

National holiday: Canada Day, July 1 (1867)

Population growth: 0.71% (2024 est.)

Time zone: Canada covers six time zones: Pacific Standard Time (UTC –8); Mountain Standard Time (UTC –7); Central Standard Time (UTC –6); Eastern Standard Time (UTC –5); Atlantic Standard Time (UTC –4); and Newfoundland Standard Time (UTC –3).

Flag: The Canadian flag consists of a white square flanked by a band of red on either side. In the center of the white square is a red eleven-point maple leaf. Red and white are the national colors of Canada.

Independence: July 1, 1867 (union of British North American colonies); December 11, 1931 (recognized by UK per Statute of Westminster)

Government type: a parliamentary democracy, a federation, and a constitutional monarchy

Suffrage: 18 years of age; universal

Legal system: common law system except in Quebec where civil law based on the French civil code prevails

Canada is in North America, bordered on the south by the United States. The two countries share economic ties and many cultural elements. Canada is divided into ten provinces and three territories.

Canada is rich in land and natural resources. A relatively young country, Canada’s entire economy once depended on the fur trade. Today, it is an industrially and economically developed nation that hosts the headquarters of numerous global corporations.

Note: unless otherwise indicated, statistical data in this article is sourced from the CIA World Factbook, as cited in the bibliography.

People and Culture

Population: Canada is one of the world’s most sparsely populated countries. Most of the population is concentrated along the southern border.

The greatest population density is between the Great Lakes and the Gulf of St. Lawrence. The most densely populated provinces, however, are Prince Edward Island and Nova Scotia in Atlantic Canada. The country is more sparsely populated above 60 degrees north latitude.

The majority of Canadians live in urban areas. In 2023, 81.9 percent of Canadians lived in urban centers. Toronto in Ontario, Montreal in Quebec, Vancouver in British Columbia, Calgary in Alberta, Ottawa in Ontario, and Edmonton in Alberta are the most populated Canadian metropolitan areas.

French and English are the official languages of Canada. The majority of Canadians speak English (87.1 percent) with fewer citizens speaking French (29.1 percent). Following English and French, Chinese (4.2 percent), Spanish (3.2 percent), Punjabi (2.6 percent), Arabic (2.4 percent), Tagalog (2.3 percent), and Italian (1.5 percent) are spoken by small percentages of the population (2022 est).

Canada’s major ethnic groups include Canadians, English, French, Scottish, Irish, Germans, Italians, Chinese, and First Nations.

Christianity represent the largest religion in Canada, at 53.3 percent. The next largest group identifies as having no religion at 34.6 percent, with the remainder of citizens comprised of several other denominations and faiths (2021 est).

Indigenous People: Canada has an Indigenous population that includes Status (registered) Indians, non-Status Indians, Métis, and Inuit. Indigenous peoples who are not Métis or Inuit are collectively referred to as First Nations.

Throughout history, numerous societies have existed in what is now Canada. The Thule (proto-Inuit) cultures lived in the arctic regions of the country centuries ago. The Thule were organized into bands of related families who worked together to hunt and fish. They are noted for their carvings in ivory.

The provinces now known as Québec, Ontario, most of Alberta, and the northern part of Saskatchewan were home to the Athabascan and Algonquian groups. These were small family groupings of hunters and gatherers. These people moved to and from seasonal camps using dog sleds.

The Mi'kmaq (Micmac), Maliseet, and Beothuk lived in the Atlantic and Gulf region, where they lived primarily by hunting, fishing, and gathering. They sometimes moved inland for a season. Sioux (Dakota), Blackfoot, Gros Ventre, and Assiniboine were the nomads of the Great Plains. Seasonal camps of up to one hundred people followed the buffalo.

Societies of Iroquoian and Algonquian groups inhabited the Great Lakes and St. Lawrence lowlands. Extended families lived together in longhouses, with up to 50 longhouses and 1,500 people in a village. They raised crops in an area until the soil was depleted and then moved on.

Seminomadic and nomadic peoples such as the Kootenay and Chilcotin lived on the plateau west of the Rocky Mountains in the present-day province of British Columbia. They lived in multifamily lodges made of poles, bark, and earth. They hunted deer and other large mammals and fished especially for salmon.

Complex cultures such as the Tsimshian and Salish lived west of the Rockies and north of the plateau and settled on the edge of bays and inlets in permanent villages of 200 to 700 inhabitants. They caught fish in the ocean and rivers and harpooned whales.

First Nations people received the right to vote in 1960. Today they enjoy certain specific rights. For instance, they do not pay taxes on personal property on a reserve (reservation), including income earned on the reserve. However, disputes over land ownership continue. Inuit land claims were settled in 2005 by the Labrador Inuit Land Claims Agreement.

In the 2014 Supreme Court of Canada case Tsilhqot’in Nation v. British Columbia the Court ruled unanimously in favor of the Tsilhqot’in Nation, granting Aboriginal title to 1,700 square kilometers (656 square miles) of land that had been traditionally inhabited by the Tsilhqot’in. All benefits and profits derived from this land would also belong to the Tsilhqot’in. The ruling is significant because it set a precedent for the requirement of establishing Aboriginal status.

Today, the First Nations people live throughout Canada, but mostly in the territories and Prairie Provinces. Most of the communities on reserves are small. Unemployment and poverty are higher among First Nations people than among White Canadians.

The Métis are people of mixed European and First Nations or Inuit ancestry. Some Métis are French and Indian, while others are Scottish and Indian. These descendants of early fur traders and First Nations women combine elements of both Indigenous and European cultures.

The Métis are considered separate cultural groups, but the vague legal definition has caused problems. While researchers have identified poor housing, transportation needs, a lack of home care, and accessibility barriers, they lack government funds to remedy these conditions. Some Métis have called for the same hunting and other rights as other First Nations groups. In some places, Métis have sued for land rights.

Education: Canadian education policy is determined by the provinces, so compulsory education requirements vary. In general, primary education begins at age five or six and continues to age thirteen or fourteen. High school typically lasts for five years.

There are nearly one hundred universities throughout Canada. McGill University is an English-language institution in Montreal, while the University of Montreal is a French-language university. The University of King’s College, founded in Nova Scotia in 1789, is the oldest in Canada. The university was established by British loyalists who moved to Canada after the American Revolution. The University of Toronto is the country’s largest.

The literacy rate in Canada is determined according to five levels, with Level 1 being the lowest level of literacy proficiency and Level 5 designating the highest level. Individuals who score at Level 3 proficiency are considered to possess the minimum level of literacy skills to be successful in modern society. Those at Levels 1 or 2 do not likely possess the skills needed to succeed in a technologically dependent economy or to actively participate in most facets of society. According to a 2022 report from Statistics Canada, approximately 49 percent of all Canadians had literacy scores below a high school level. Indigenous people had disproportionately low literacy levels.

Health Care: The Canadian healthcare system, known as Medicare, provides universal coverage for physician visits and hospital services. The federal government, provinces, and territories cooperate in a system that is being constantly reformed in response to societal changes.

The federal government, through the Canada Health Act of 1984, administers national aspects of the system, such as public health programs and health research. It also helps to fund provincial and territorial health care services. In addition, the federal government provides services to specific groups, such as First Nations, Inuit, and veterans.

The provinces and territories administer and deliver services locally. They also provide supplemental benefits, such as prescription drug coverage, to certain groups. This coverage varies in the different jurisdictions.

Canadians enjoy a long, average life expectancy at birth of 83.99 years (81.72 for men and 86.39 for women) according to 2023 estimates. The country has roughly 2.44 doctors for every 1,000 people (2019). Canada ranked fifteenth on the 2021 United Nations’ Human Development Index, which reviews countries for quality of life based on their performance in education, health, and income.

Food: Canadians have a typical North American diet that includes beef, pork, and poultry; cereals; milk and cream; and a greater variety of fruits and vegetables than in previous decades. Traditional Canadian cuisine reflects the influences of the French, British, and First Nations.

Bannocks, a type of scone, were popularized in Canada by descendants of immigrants from Scotland. Often made with oats and raisins, bannocks were originally cooked in iron skillets over fire. The Métis have further assimilated bannocks by deep-frying them.

Arts & Entertainment:Ice hockey is Canada’s national sport. The country has a championship Olympic team, three national league, and numerous local and regional leagues. Some of Canada’s most famous hockey players include Bobby Hull, Bobby Orr, Bobby Clarke, and Maurice Richard.

Basketball is also popular. Since 1936, Canada has had an Olympic basketball team. The first National Basketball Association (NBA) game was played in Toronto in 1946. Canadians also love baseball. Jackie Robinson broke the color barrier in baseball when he played with the Montreal Royals. The Toronto Blue Jays won Major League Baseball’s World Series in 1992 and 1993.

Famous Canadian writers include Margaret Atwood, author of The Handmaid’s Tale (1985); Lucy Maud Montgomery, author of Anne of Green Gables (1908); Farley Mowat, author of Never Cry Wolf (1963); and Arthur Hailey, author of Airport (1968). Other famous Canadian literary figures include short story writer Alistair MacLeod and humorist Stephen Leacock.

Famous Canadian singers and musicians include Anne Murray, Céline Dion, Alanis Morissette, Shania Twain, Gordon Lightfoot, Glenn Gould, Neil Young, Avril Lavigne, Michael Bublé, Drake, k.d. lang, and Justin Bieber. Many Canadian and Canadian American actors, including Michael J. Fox, William Shatner, Pamela Anderson, Alex Trebek, Jim Carrey, Michael Cera, Ryan Reynolds, and Rachel McAdams appear in movies and on television.

Holidays: Official holidays observed in Canada include Victoria Day, the queen’s birthday (May 23), Thanksgiving (October), Remembrance Day (November 11), and Boxing Day (December 26).

Environment and Geography

Topography: Canada is the second-largest country in the world, after Russia. It constitutes the northern part of North America (except for Alaska to the west), extending from the Atlantic to the Pacific. Canada’s only national boundary is with the United States to the south. The St. Lawrence Seaway and the Great Lakes form part of this boundary.

The country consists mostly of plains, with mountains in the west and lowlands in the east. The highest point is at the top of Mount Logan, in the Yukon Territory, at 5,959 meters (19,551 feet).

The topographical areas of Canada are the Canadian Shield in the northeast; the Interior Plains (or Great Plains or Prairies), with numerous lakes and rivers, stretching northwest to southeast; the Canadian Rockies, consisting of several ranges stretching from the western part of the country to the Pacific coast; and four of the five Great Lakes.

The country’s largest urban areas are Toronto and Montreal. Toronto, the capital of Ontario, began as an Indian village and became a city in 1834. Montreal stands on the Island of Montreal in Québec. It began as the home of the Iroquois Indians.

Natural Resources: Canada is rich in mineral resources, with large deposits of iron ore, nickel, copper, zinc, lead, gold, potash, molybdenum, diamonds, silver, coal, natural gas, and petroleum. Other resources include fish, timber, and wildlife.

Air pollution and the resulting acid rain is a growing problem that affects lakes and forests. Pollution has also hurt both agriculture and forestry. In addition, the side-effects of agriculture, industry, mining, and forestry have polluted some of the oceans surrounding Canada.

Plants & Animals: Flora and fauna vary with the geography throughout Canada. In the arctic tundra and in high mountains, dwarfed trees and lichens are common. Coniferous forests dominate the landscape south of Hudson Bay. Conifers also grow on the Rockies, along with beech and other cold-weather trees. Deciduous trees such as maple, ash, and linden grow on the lower slopes, across the central plains, and around the Great Lakes. On slopes facing the Pacific, hemlock, cypress, and cedar dominate.

A wide variety of wildflowers thrive in Canada, including skunk cabbage, wintergreen, prickly pear cactus, asters, columbines, sedges, thistles, wild roses, saxifrages, and various wild berries.

Perhaps Canada’s most famous animal is the polar bear. Other large mammals found in Canada include the grizzly bear, the American black bear, elk, wapiti, caribou, and musk ox. Canada is also home to many fur-bearing animals such as the arctic fox, ermine, beaver, and mink. Sea animals such as whales, walrus, and seal are native to Canada’s waters.

More than 450 species of birds live in Canada, and many others migrate there. Only Harris’s sparrow is endemic. Typical birds found in Canada include puffins, eagles, vultures, hawks, American white pelicans, bitterns, egrets, herons, canvasback ducks, and terns.

Climate: Canada’s mostly continental climate features frigid winters, especially inland, with heavy snow and light-to-moderate rainfall. Southern and Pacific coastal areas experience more temperate and humid conditions. Permafrost and drought are common on the arctic tundra.

In Ottawa, the average temperature in January is 11 degrees Celsius (52 degrees Fahrenheit), rising to an average of 20 degrees Celsius (68 degrees Fahrenheit) in July. In Vancouver, the average winter temperature is 2 degrees Celsius (36 degrees Fahrenheit), and the average summer temperature is 17 degrees Celsius (64 degrees Fahrenheit). Yellowknife, the capital of the Northwest Territories, experiences an average temperature of –26 degrees Celsius (–15 degrees Fahrenheit) during winter, and 16 degrees Celsius (61 degrees Fahrenheit) during the summer.

Annual precipitation also varies. The arctic region receives the least rain, only about 30 centimeters (12 inches). The Plains receive about 30 to 50 centimeters (12-20 inches). Areas that experience heavier rainfall include the Atlantic Provinces (150 centimeters/60 inches), and the Pacific coast receives up to 200 centimeters (80 inches).

Economy

Canada’s modern industrial economy resembles that of the United States. Trade between the two countries increased starting in 1994, due to the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA). In July 2020, NAFTA was replaced with the United States–Mexico–Canada Agreement (USMCA).

In 2023, Canada’s gross domestic product (GDP) was an estimated US$2.238 trillion. The per capita GDP was an estimated US$55,800.

In 2023, the estimated unemployment rate was 5.37 percent. The labor force was 22.11 million in 2023.

Industry: Canada’s primary industries include the manufacture of chemical products, paper and food products, petroleum and natural gas, and transportation equipment. Other important industries include mining, agriculture, and fishing.

Canada is one of the largest energy producers in the world. A great deal of this energy is exported to the United States, which receives more imported oil from Canada than from any other country.

Agriculture: Less than 5 percent of Canada’s land is arable; most of this land is in the Prairie Provinces, where grain, livestock, and forest products are produced. Canada is a leading producer of wheat and oats. Rye, barley, and corn are also grown on the prairies.

Farmers in the Atlantic Provinces raise flax, soybeans, rapeseed, sugar beets, and tobacco, with some fruit and vegetables. Along the west coast, farmers primarily raise livestock and produce meat, butter, and dairy foods.

Fur farming is also big business in Canada, with companies raising beavers, mink, otters, chinchilla, and silver fox.

Fishing, especially off the Grand Banks of Newfoundland, produces about 1 million metric tons each year. Lobster, salmon, and cod are taken from the oceans. Pike, sturgeon, and other freshwater fish are taken from lakes and rivers.

Natural hazards to agriculture include continuous permafrost in the north and cyclonic storms east of the Rocky Mountains.

Tourism: Canada has a large tourist industry, with 22.1 million international tourist arrivals in 2019. Travel and tourism contributed CN$138.3 billion to Canada’s GDP in 2022.

Tourist sites include the country’s thirty-nine national parks and eight national park reserves. The national parks cover a combined area of more than 303,000 square kilometers (116,000 square miles), and there are also hundreds of provincial parks. Many popular tourist destinations also appear on the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) list of World Heritage sites. These include Head-Smashed-In Buffalo Jump, the L’Anse aux Meadows Viking village, the Canadian Rocky Mountain Parks, and the Historic District of Québec.

Government

Canada is a federal parliamentary democracy, with universal suffrage for adults eighteen years and older. The confederation consists of ten provinces (Alberta, British Columbia, Saskatchewan, Ontario, Nova Scotia, Manitoba, Québec, New Brunswick, Prince Edward Island, and Newfoundland and Labrador) and three territories (Yukon, Northwest Territories, and Nunavut).

The official chief of state is the monarch of England, who is represented in Canada by the governor-general. The monarch appoints the governor-general to a five-year term.

After elections for Parliament, the governor-general appoints the leader of the majority party as prime minister. The prime minister appoints the cabinet from the prime minister’s party in Parliament.

Canada’s Parliament is bicameral, with a Senate of 105 senators, appointed by the governor-general on the advice of the prime minister; and a House of Commons, whose 338 members are elected by popular vote. The senators serve until age seventy-five. Members of Parliament (MPs) serve for up to five years, but Parliament may be dissolved by a vote of no confidence.

Supreme Court judges are appointed by the prime minister and confirmed by the governor-general.

Major Canadian political parties at the federal level include the Conservative Party, the Liberal Party, the New Democratic Party, the Bloc Québécois, and the Green Party.

Interesting Facts

• Poutine, invented in the 1950s, is a favorite Québec fast food. The dish consists of French fries topped with cheese curds (bits of fresh cheddar before it is pressed into blocks and aged) and gravy.
• Dr. James Naismith, the inventor of basketball, was Canadian, and so were ten of the players in the first game.
• An estimated 75 percent of Canadians live within 100 miles (161 kilometers) of the country’s southern border with the United States.

Bibliography

Bell, Catherine, and William B. Henderson. “Rights of Indigenous Peoples in Canada.” The Canadian Encyclopedia, 25 May 2015, www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/aboriginal-rights/. Accessed 12 Jul. 2022.

"Canada: 2023 Annual Research: Key Highlights. World Travel & Tourism Council, 2023, researchhub.wttc.org/factsheets/canada. Accessed 25 Oct. 2023.

"Canada.” The World Bank, 2023, data.worldbank.org/country/canada. Accessed 25 Oct. 2023.

“Canada.” The World Factbook, Central Intelligence Agency, 16 Oct. 2023, www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/canada/. Accessed 25 Oct. 2023.

"Human Development Insights." Human Development Reports, United Nations Development Programme, 2022, hdr.undp.org/data-center/country-insights#/ranks. Accessed 25 Oct. 2023.