Central Asia

Central Asia is a region located to the east of the Caspian Sea, extending west to the country of China. Russia, also called the Russian Federation, is located north of the region, and the countries of Iran, Afghanistan, and Pakistan border it to the south. Central Asia is comprised of five former Soviet republics: Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan.

Some historians include the eastern region of Xinjiang and the country of Afghanistan as part of Central Asia, which is sometimes called Middle Asia or Inner Asia. Other experts include Mongolia, Manchuria, and parts of Iran in this region. However, this entry will focus on the five former Soviet republics.

Central Asia covers nearly 4 million square kilometers, but the region is sparsely populated compared to other areas of the world. As of 2024, the region was home to more than 82 million people. The largest republic by land size is Kazakhstan. Located to the north of the other countries, it has the second-largest population at just over 20 million. Located south of Kazakhstan to the west is the smallest country, Turkmenistan, which has a population of 7.4 million. Bordering Turkmenistan to the east is Uzbekistan. Uzbekistan is the most populated with 36.6 million people, and it shares its eastern border with both Tajikistan to the south and Kyrgyzstan to the north. Tajikistan's population is 10.1 million, and Kyrgyzstan's is 5.7 million.

There was little information about Central Asia available prior to the 1990s because the Soviet Union controlled the region. Much of Central Asia's early history was not recorded because a written language did not exist until the sixth or seventh centuries C.E. with the emergence of the Sogdian language. The Turkic language developed in the eighth and ninth centuries C.E. Because of this, most of what was known about the early period of the area came from material objects rather than written accounts.

The Scythians were the first group to inhabit Central Asia around the eighth and seventh centuries B.C.E. The nomadic Scythians were divided between royal and ordinary people. They were very dependent on trade, and a system of trade routes known as the Silk Road later emerged. Several other nomadic groups succeeded the Scythians over the centuries, including the Xiongnu in the third century B.C.E., the Uyghurs around the eighth century C.E., and the Mongols in the 13th century. Each empire collapsed due to a variety of factors, such as major disputes between nomadic people and settled groups.

In the centuries that followed, trade in the area declined, impoverishing many areas throughout Central Asia. The population waned. Around the 1600s, Russia and China moved into the region. Russia moved into the western parts, while China moved into territories in the east. The two groups lived peacefully for some time, but Russia gained control of most of the region by the nineteenth century. The two countries continued to fight over Central Asia until the 1920s, when the Soviet Union formed and took control of much of the region. It remained in control until its collapse in 1991. Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan became the independent republics comprising Central Asia.

Geography and Climate

Central Asia is a mostly landlocked region with large plains and high mountain ranges. While the mostly desert region shares part of its western border with the Caspian Sea, it is not near any oceans. The Indian Ocean is the closest ocean. The lack of water in the region makes the climate dry and contributes to an array of extreme temperatures. The lack of precipitation has caused people to congregate near river systems and away from deserts, creating an unequal population throughout the countries.

Central Asia has two major river systems: the Amu Darya and the Syr Darya. These rivers drain into the Aral Sea, located in the west in Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan. The Altai Mountains lie in the eastern portion of the region.

The Central Asia region is classified into three climates: mid-latitude desert, steppe, and humid continental. Southern Kazakhstan, western Uzbekistan, western Turkmenistan, and eastern and western parts of Kyrgyzstan have a mid-latitude desert climate. The low humidity keeps the desert area arid, with less than 10 inches of rain falling annually. Unlike other deserts, the temperatures are cool in these areas, averaging below 64 degrees Fahrenheit. The areas see freezing temperatures in the winter and high temperatures in the summer. Additionally, daytime temperatures could be much higher than nighttime temperatures.

Mid-Kazakhstan, western Turkmenistan, and part of western Uzbekistan have a steppe climate. This is similar to the climate in the northwestern area of the Great Plains in the United States. The semi-dry grasslands in this climate can get up to double the rainfall of the areas in the mid-latitude desert climate. The temperatures in these regions average less than 64 degrees Fahrenheit, with even lower averages found in higher elevations.

Central and northern Kazakhstan, eastern Uzbekistan, central Kyrgyzstan, and most of Tajikistan fall under a humid continental climate. These areas receive the most precipitation, averaging more than 20 inches annually. Southern regions see high temperatures, while northern regions stay cool. Summers are mostly dry, and winters typically bring extremely low temperatures and snow.

Economy

The countries of Central Asia suffered a recession after the collapse of the Soviet Union that continued to affect the economies of these countries through the 2010s. In 2024, the region's economies all recorded strong growth, despite some natural disasters. Governments have implemented many programs to help privatize industries and the agricultural sector. In the early 2020s, the region saw a sizeable increase in publicly and privately funded investment in transport, logistics, and export-oriented manufacturing. International tourism rose, creating a consumption boom.

Growing interest from countries such as China, Pakistan, Russia, and the United States in oil and natural gas is helping the region restructure its economy. Turkey has been working with the region on the Baku–Tbilisi–Ceyhan oil pipeline, while Iran has been competing for control of an oil pipeline to be constructed between the Caspian Sea and the Persian Gulf. Pakistan has continued interests in the region's natural gas industry.

Some Central Asian economies are growing. Kazakhstan remains the most prosperous of the countries. Its main exports are oil and natural gas, which help it maintain a controlled economy and banking system. At the end of the 2000s, the U.S. Department of Commerce certified Kazakhstan with market economy status.

Kyrgyzstan was the first Central Asian country to join the World Trade Organization in the 1990s and allow foreign investors into its markets. The country has a rich gold mining industry, which has helped bolster its economy. While Kyrgyzstan's economy has undergone much change in recent years, it remains unstable. Unemployment remains high in the country, and the Covid-19 pandemic further destabalized the region.

Tajikistan is the poorest country in central Asia due to problems stemming from civil war. While poverty rates remain high, especially in rural areas, the country has worked hard to reduce poverty. Rates fell from over 83 percent in 2000 to around 26 percent in 2020. The farming nation depends on revenues from exports such as cotton and aluminum. Turkmenistan is a large exporter of cotton and natural gas. At one time, the country was dependent on China to export its natural gas. However, the opening of the Turkmenistan-China pipeline led to an agreement between the two countries, which increased Turkmenistan's profits in the industry. Uzbekistan, known for its oil and natural gas industries, is the leading producer of cotton in Central Asia.

Poverty continues to be a problem throughout Central Asia. Civil unrest and economic instability have forced many citizens from Tajikistan, Uzbekistan, and Kyrgyzstan to travel to Kazakhstan and Russia for work. This negatively affects many women in these countries, as they are left to care for farms and families while their husbands are away.

Demographics

While Kazakhstan is the largest Central Asian country in terms of land mass, Uzbekistan is the most populous. The region experienced rapid population growth throughout the 20th century, but it has one of the lowest fertility rates in the Asia-Pacific region according to the Statistical Yearbook for Asia and the Pacific 2012. As of 2023, women in Central Asia had an average of 1.6 children. The average life expectancy in the region was seventy-one years.

According to the Population Reference Bureau, the estimated population of Central Asia in 2050 will be 98.2 million. The estimated individual country populations for 2050 are: Kazakhstan, 24 million; Kyrgyzstan, 8.7 million; Tajikistan, 15.6 million; Turkmenistan, 6.6 million; and Uzbekistan, 43.4 million.

The differing climates found throughout Central Asia have caused an uneven distribution of people. Some areas were overpopulated, while others were underpopulated. The desert areas are sparsely populated compared to the densely populated areas near the Amu Darya and Syr Darya Rivers and the Aral Sea.

More than one hundred different ethnic groups populate the region. The top five are Uzbek, Kazakh, Tajik, Turkmen, and Kyrgyz—with Uzbek being the largest of these. The majority of the people living in the countries of Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan, Kyrgyzstan, and Kazakhstan speak Turkic languages, while Tajikistan's population mostly speaks Persian. Many people throughout Central Asia also speak Russian. Sunni Islam is the most prevalent religion in Central Asia, but some people practice other religions, such as Buddhism and Zoroastrianism.

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