Poland

Full name of country: Republic of Poland

Region: Europe

Official language: Polish

Population: 38,746,310 (2024 est.)

Nationality: Pole(s) (noun), Polish (adjective)

Land area: 304,255 sq km (117,473 sq miles)

Water area: 8,430 sq km (3,255 sq miles)

Capital: Warsaw

National anthem: "Mazurek Dabrowskiego" (Dabrowski's Mazurka), by Jozef Wybicki/Traditional

National holiday: Constitution Day, May 3 (1791)

Population growth: -1% (2024 est.)

Time zone: UTC + 1

Flag: The flag of Poland features a horizontal bicolor design, with a white horizontal band above an equally sized red band.

Independence: November 11, 1918 (republic proclaimed); notable earlier dates: 966 (adoption of Christianity, traditional founding date), July 1, 1569 (Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth created)

Government type: parliamentary republic

Suffrage: 18 years of age; universal

Legal system: civil law system; judicial review of legislative, administrative, and other governmental acts; rulings of the Constitutional Tribunal are final

The Republic of Poland (Polish, "Polska") is a country in north-central Europe whose strategic geographical position and lack of natural barriers have often made it the site of many European power struggles throughout history. A great power during the seventeenth century, Poland lost all its territory during the wars of the eighteenth century and ceased to exist as a sovereign nation until after World War I.

Poland threw off communist rule in 1989 and became a member of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) in 1999 and the European Union in 2004. The country is renowned for the beauty of its mountains, lakes, and seacoast, as well as for its arts festivals, which draw millions of visitors from around the world.

Note: unless otherwise indicated, statistical data in this article is sourced from the CIA World Factbook, as cited in the bibliography.

People and Culture

Population: Around 60.2 percent of the population lives in urban areas (2023 estimate). Warsaw, the capital, is the largest city. Other major cities are Kraków, Łódź, Wrocław, Poznań, Gdańsk, Szczecin, Bydgoszcz, and Lublin.

Poland ranked 36 (based on 2021 data) on the 2022 United Nations Human Development Index, which measures quality of life indicators.

Poland's population is comprised largely of ethnic Poles, who make up more than 96.9 percent of the population (2011 estimate). Almost all of the country's Jewish population was killed by the Nazis during the Holocaust, which occurred during World War II. Other causes were the postwar changes in national boundaries and the forced removal of ethnic minorities. Other prominent minorities in Poland include Silesians, Germans, and Ukrainians.

Religion plays a crucial role in Polish life. The Roman Catholic Church dominates; about 84.6 percent of the population identifies as Catholic (2022 estimate). The other main Christian groups are the Orthodox and small numbers of Protestants. Jewish people have slowly begun to return to Poland and reestablish communities.

Polish belongs to the West Slavic family of languages, which includes Czech and Slovak, and is the primary tongue of almost all Poles. Millions of speakers live outside of Poland, including in other Central European countries and the United States. Polish has complex grammar, including five genders, and the vocabulary has been heavily influenced by French, Latin, German, and Russian.

Indigenous People: The Poles are a Slavic or Eastern European people but are linked to the West through Roman Catholicism and the Latin alphabet. Poland's original inhabitants were largely a loose collection of Slavic tribes, including the Poles. Shifting borders have meant that there are usually many ethnic minorities in the country; the main ones have been the Germans, Ukrainians, Belarusians, and Lithuanians. Jews inhabited Poland in large numbers from ancient times until the Holocaust, when millions of Jewish citizens of Poland were killed or displaced.

Education: Poland has a literacy rate of more than 99.8 percent (2021 estimate) and an extensive public education system that underwent significant reforms beginning in 2017. While 1999 reforms structured the education system into six years of primary school, three years of lower secondary school ("gymnasium" similar to junior high school in the United States), and three years of upper secondary scooling (similar to US high school), the reform, signed into law as of January 2017, returned the system to a two-level setup, with students spending eight years in primary school and four years in general secondary school. Secondary schools include general, technical, and vocational. Junior high schools were scheduled to be closed and were eventually completely phased out by 2020.

Many universities in Poland date from the Middle Ages. One of the oldest and most prestigious is the Jagiellonian University in Kraków, established in 1364; alumni include astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus (1473–1543), Pope John Paul II (1920–2005), and poet Wisława Szymborska (1923–2012). Other major university towns are Warsaw, Gdańsk, and Lublin. During the communist era, the Catholic University of Lublin (founded 1918) was notable as the only independent university in Eastern Europe.

Health Care: The central government completely controlled health care during the communist era. Although it was free, medical care was often of poor quality. In the postcommunist era, Poland worked to improve public health through privatization and decentralization.

Private medical care has been available since 1989 but can be expensive. Public health was increasingly decentralized during the 1990s, with power given to local medical facilities and regional boards known as "Health Funds." Beginning in the early 2000s, however, the universal health care system's main source of financing was the National Health Fund.

Food: Polish cuisine is traditionally hearty and heavy, with plenty of meat and starches. Smoked sausage, or kielbasa, is a Polish specialty. Favorite dishes include soups, such as czarnina (duck blood soup) and bigos (a hunter's stew). Potato pancakes are also popular. Green vegetables have not historically been a large part of the Polish diet, but this has changed over time.

Polish cooks love to add fillings to a wide assortment of dishes, including the dumplings known as pierogi (often stuffed with meat, cheese, or potatoes) and the filled pastries known as kolacky and paczki. Vodka and beer are favorite drinks.

Arts & Entertainment: Poland has a unique cultural heritage, mixing elements of Eastern and Western European culture. Prior to World War II, Jewish culture was also a major influence. Folk culture is strong in Poland, and Poles enjoy taking part in folk festivals that include dancing and instrumental music.

Poland has produced many notable writers. Important literary movements have included Romanticism, Socialist Realism (particularly during the Communist era), and the antiestablishment movement known as Futurism. Well-known modern Polish writers include historical novelist Henryk Sienkiewicz (1846–1916), who won the 1905 Nobel Prize in Literature; science-fiction author Stanisław Lem (1921–2006); and novelist Jerzy Kosiński (1933–91).

Poles have also made notable contributions to music. Though Polish-born, Romantic composer Frederic Chopin (1810–49) spent much of his life in Paris; he wrote many piano works based on Polish folk tunes. Ignacy Jan Paderewski (1860–1941) was a noted pianist and composer who served briefly after World War I as prime minister of Poland.

Poland has a thriving mass media since the downfall of communism, but concerns remained about governmental interference with press freedom. These include regulations that limit foreign ownership, as well as the ability of newspapers to buy broadcasting stations. The government has lifted many restrictions, however, to bring Polish media regulations in line with those of the European Union. The constitution protects freedom of speech and of the press, but libel, defamation of public officials, and blasphemy can be punishable by fines and imprisonment. The most influential newspapers include Gazeta Wyborcza and Rzeczpospolita. The daily newspaper Dziennik Gazeta Prawna is based in Warsaw and focuses on economic and legal matters. Tabloids such as Super Express and Fakt also have large readerships.

Holidays: Many Polish holidays have religious significance and are related to the Roman Catholic faith. These include the Assumption of the Blessed Virgin Mary (August 15) and Pentecost Sunday (the seventh Sunday after Easter). Easter Monday is known as "Wet Monday" or Dyngus Day ("Wet Monday") and is celebrated with courtship rituals involving dousing members of the opposite sex with buckets of water.

Two important political holidays occur in May. May 1 is the official State Holiday, which is purposely not called "Labor Day" in order to avoid connections with the communist past. Constitution Day (May 3) honors the 1791 passage of Poland's first written constitution. The Picnic (May 2) is not an official holiday but is used by many Poles to make a long weekend between the other two days.

Independence Day (November 11) commemorates November 11, 1918, the day on which World War I ended and on which the Polish Republic was reestablished.

Environment and Geography

Topography: Poland has five main geographical regions: the central lowlands, the lesser Poland uplands, the southern mountains, the lake district, and the Baltic coast. The central lowlands include the vast plain across which invaders have traveled. To the south are the lesser Poland uplands, a series of foothills rising to the southern mountains. The southern mountains include the Carpathian and Sudeten ranges. The Carpathians include the Tatra Range, which rise in places to alpine heights. The country's highest point is at the peak of Mount Rysy, 2,499 meters (8,199 feet) above sea level. The highest point in the Sudetens is Mount Sniezka (1,602 meters/5,256 feet above sea level).

There are over nine thousand lakes in Poland, many of them in the northern lake district. This region is heavily wooded but also has extensive marshlands. The sandy Baltic Coast, a popular tourist destination, is home to the major port cities Gdańsk, Gdynia, and Szczecin.

Poland has a number of major rivers, all of which flow into the Baltic Sea. Though these bodies of water have not generally kept out invaders, they have served as important commercial routes. In the west are the Oder and Neisse, which form the boundary with Germany. The Vistula, which flows through Warsaw, is the country's largest river.

Natural Resources: Poland is rich in natural resources, particularly coal, sulfur, natural gas, petroleum, and industrial metals such as silver, lead, and copper. There are large amounts of arable land, as well as large forests with evergreens and deciduous species.

Postcommunist Poland suffers severe environmental problems, relating to the country's rapid industrialization during the Cold War. A particular problem has been air pollution from the country's coal-fired power plants and water pollution from industrial runoff. Postcommunist governments have made efforts to reduce pollution and protect the environment.

Plants & Animals: Poland is home to many wild animal species, particularly in the forested regions and in the northern lakes and marshlands. In Poland's primeval forests one can find species such as wolves and Eurasian beavers (which were once considered threatened but had recovered as of 2016), as well as small numbers of the European bison.

Around 30 percent of Poland's area is covered with forest, mostly in the northeast (2018 estimate). Northern Poland and the mountainous areas are covered largely with pine and other coniferous species. Deciduous species such as oak and beech grow in the other parts of the country.

Climate: Poland's climate is continental and temperate. Summers are usually warm, rather than hot, and not overly humid. Winters are cold with considerable amounts of snow.

Maritime air currents from the Atlantic bring a mix of Arctic and subtropical air; depending on which predominates at the time, Poland can experience mild or cold weather. Precipitation is dependable, supporting Poland's rich agriculture.

Similar to other countries, by the 2020s Poland had seen an increase of climate change impacts such as droughts and heatwaves.

Economy

Since the fall of communism, Poland has worked to move its economy toward a free-market system. This has often been difficult, due to the aging infrastructure inherited from the communist era and lack of investment. Poland was forced to make drastic economic and monetary reforms in order to qualify for membership in the European Union. The EU provided Poland US$17 billion in economic assistance between 2004 and 2006.

Poland in the early 1990s faced immense inflation and unemployment. In 2023, unemployment was around 2.91 percent, and the total workforce was approximately 18.387 million in 2023. Much of the workforce is dedicated to the services industry, followed by industry and then agriculture.

In 2023, the overall gross domestic product (GDP) was US$1.616 trillion. Per capita GDP was estimated at US$44,100.

Industry: Poland's industry has traditionally been heavy, focusing on the manufacture of iron and steel, coal, and chemicals. Machine building, shipbuilding, food processing, glass, beverages, and textiles are also important industries. Poland's shipbuilding industry came into world prominence in the 1980s, through the rise of the labor union Solidarity, but suffered greatly following the global financial crisis that began in 2008.

Industry has tried to restructure itself in the face of new technology. By 2020, Polish industry faced problems because of its reliance on domestic coal, the production of which had increased in expense, for power; the country was under continued pressure to lessen its use of coal for energy to combat climate change and help address environmental issues such as pollution.

Many of Poland's most important trading partners are EU members, including France, the Netherlands, Italy, and Germany. Other important trading partners are China and Czechia.

Agriculture: Agriculture has become less of a major employer. Agriculture productivity is low in terms of contribution to GDP. This is largely because Poland's farms are usually small and family-owned.

The major crops include potatoes, fruits, vegetables, and wheat. Other important agricultural sectors are poultry, pork, and dairy.

Tourism: Poland has become increasingly popular as a tourist destination in the postcommunist era. This trend is likely to continue, especially following the country's entry into the European Union. While the COVID-19 pandemic and travel restrictions caused decreases in tourism numbers starting in 2020, by 2022, according to Statistics Poland, 35.4 million tourists were accommodated in tourist accommodation establishments.

Winter sports, especially skiing, are popular in the mountains. Other popular destinations are the country's centuries-old health spas and the Baltic Sea resorts. The Bialowieza Forest, home of the European bison, is a United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) World Heritage Site. The natural beauty of the Mazury lake district in the northeast also attracts visitors.

Though many landmarks have been destroyed by centuries of war, Poland offers many historic sites. Among the most historic are the ancient cities of Warsaw, Kraków, Lublin, and Wrocław.

Government

Poland was first unified in the tenth century. The subsequent Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth dominated Eastern European politics until the rise of Russia and other powers in the eighteenth century.

In 1795, Poland finally ceased to exist as a sovereign nation. A Second Polish Republic was declared in 1918, following the end of World War I, and lasted until Germany invaded in 1939. A Polish government-in-exile fled to England, but the communists seized power after the war and established the People's Republic of Poland, which lasted from 1945 until 1989. The Third Polish Republic, a parliamentary democracy, was established in 1989. The current constitution dates from 1997 and has been amended in 2006, 2009, and 2015.

Poland's executive branch includes the president and the Council of Ministers, the latter headed by the prime minister. The president, the head of state, is popularly elected every five years. The Council of Ministers, or cabinet, are appointed by the president and confirmed by the Sejm, the lower house of the legislature. Ministers are usually selected from the majority party or ruling coalition of the Sejm.

Poland has a bicameral legislature. When the houses are meeting in joint session, which is rare, the legislature is known as the National Assembly (Zgromadzenie Narodowe). The 100-member upper house is the Senate, and the 460-member lower house is the Sejm. The Council of Ministers is responsible to the Sejm, which may call for a vote of no confidence if it dislikes the government's policies. The Sejm's presiding officers are known as the Presidium.

Members of both houses are elected to four-year terms, in direct popular elections. Senators are elected by majority vote, to represent the sixteen provinces or "voivodships." A political party generally must receive at least 5 percent of the total vote in order to have deputies in the Sejm.

Poland's highest court is the Supreme Court; members are appointed by the president on the recommendation of the National Council of the Judiciary. The Constitutional Tribunal is responsible for ruling on constitutional issues, and appoints the Commissioner for Civil Rights Protection. Courts have only limited judicial review on legislative acts.

Interesting Facts

• The Polish national anthem "Mazurek Dabrowskiego" ("Dabrowski's Mazurka") is named in honor of General Jan Henryk Dabrowski (1755–1818), a Pole who commanded Napoleon's Polish Legions in Italy. The anthem was originally the unit's battle song.
• The Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth was noted for its innovative political system, including a written constitution and elective monarchy, and extensive political and religious liberty. Its constitution of May 3, 1791, was one of the world's first written constitutions.
• Pope John Paul II was born in Wadowice, Poland, in 1920. He became archbishop of Kraków in 1963 and was known by his given name of Karol Józef Wojtyła until he became pope in 1978.
• Polish athlete Anita Wlodarczyk, who already held the world record, broke that record once more in the hammer throw competition at the 2016 Summer Olympics in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.
• In 2019, Poland had the opportunity to host its first FIFA tournament when it served as the location for that year's FIFA U-20 World Cup.

Bibliography

Human Development Report 2021/2022. United Nations Development Programme, 13 Mar. 2024, hdr.undp.org/system/files/documents/global-report-document/hdr2021-22pdf‗1.pdf. Accessed 9 Jan. 2025.

"Poland." The World Bank, 2024, data.worldbank.org/country/poland. Accessed 9 Jan. 2025.

"Poland." The World Factbook, Central Intelligence Agency, 23 Dec. 2024, www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/poland/. Accessed 9 Jan. 2025.

"Poland." World Health Organization, www.who.int/countries/pol/en/. Accessed 26 Oct. 2023.

Tourism in 2022. Statistics Poland, 2023, stat.gov.pl/en/topics/culture-tourism-sport/tourism/tourism-in-2022,1,20.html#. Accessed 26 Oct. 2023.