Catholicism

• Formation: First century CE
• Founder: Jesus Christ, through Saint Peter

Catholicism is most often used to mean Roman Catholicism, the largest denomination of the Christian religion. Roman Catholicism is one of the three main branches of Christianity, along with Eastern Orthodoxy and Protestantism. The Roman Catholic Church is headquartered in Vatican City, an independent nation-state located within the city of Rome and under the complete control of the church's government, the Holy See. The church is headed by an elected leader known as the pope (or pontiff), with assistance from an administrative branch known as the Roman Curia. The Roman Catholic Church claimed a membership of more than 1.37 billion people, or about 17.6 percent of all humanity, in 2022.

As no other Christian denomination can be understood except in relation to Roman Catholicism, the term Catholicism is aptly applied to Roman Catholics alone. Likewise, Western culture, philosophy, art, and history cannot be fully understood without some understanding of the history, structure, and beliefs of the Roman Catholic Church. The papacy, its complex organizational structure headed by the pope, is the oldest absolute monarchy on earth, and over the course of twenty centuries it has developed a subtle, complex, sophisticated theology that cannot be explained in simplistic terms.

The word catholic once meant “universal.” As early as the beginning of the second century CE Christians were encouraged to remain united in the Catholic Church. By 380 CE the Roman Emperor Theodosius assigned a specific definition to Catholics as only those who belonged to the same faith as Pope Damasus I of Rome or Pope Peter of Alexandria.

Today the Roman Catholic Church contends that Protestant churches are not in reality churches because they lack an apostolic tradition of ordinations (an unbroken series of ordinations passed down from the original Apostles) and thus have no communion with the pope, who is the successor of Saint Peter. Thus, they have no valid Eucharist and are not true churches. In contrast, the Roman Catholic Church does see itself in communion with followers of Eastern Orthodox and some Anglican traditions, the schisms that created those traditions notwithstanding.

History

Roman Catholics contend that Catholicism’s origin is with Jesus Christ and the Apostles. Therefore its history cannot be detached from any interpretation of Christianity itself. Catholics maintain that their Church has been continuous since the Apostles—all other Christian churches, from Eastern Orthodoxy to twenty-first century charismatic Protestant congregations, are derived from it. Eastern Orthodox followers, however, also see themselves as having an unbroken tradition that originates with the Apostles. Likewise, the Anglican Communion believes in the apostolic succession, although it differs from Roman Catholicism in many ways.

Regardless, the history of Catholicism is largely a history of Christianity. In some ways, the history of the religion can be seen as a long series of schisms over doctrinal issues. Initially, according to this theory, the church was undivided—all Christians were unified in the same basic beliefs. In the first four to five centuries of Christianity several centers emerged where important bishops resided. Initially these were Rome, Alexandria, and Antioch, with Jerusalem and Constantinople added a little later. The Bishop of Rome was considered the first among these equals, in part because the apostles Peter and Paul were both martyred in Rome. Saint Peter is regarded now as the first pope.

Rome remained the center of the Church even after the capital of the Roman Empire moved to Constantinople, but the greater Church was beginning to divide around this time. The first great schism occurred after the Council of Ephesus in year 431 CE. This was the third ecumenical council of the Christians in which the tradition of Mary as the Mother of God was settled. Some eastern churches did not accept this finding and broke away. These churches are now led by the Assyrian Church of the East.

One hundred twenty years later, the Council of Chalcedon led to another big schism among Christians. The issue was the divine nature of Christ as opposed to His human nature. The council rejected the idea that Jesus’s divine nature utterly overwhelmed His human nature, stating instead that Jesus was simultaneously both human and divine. The Alexandrian Church did not agree, and the churches that resulted from this schism are today called pre-Chalcedonian or Oriental Orthodox.

In the eleventh century, the great east-west divide occurred. Called the Schism of 1054 or the East-West Schism, the breakup was the result of many factors, some internal, others external.

One external factor was the fifth-century collapse of the Western Roman Empire and the ascendancy of Germanic and other tribes of “barbarians” in the territories of Western Europe. Another external factor was the rise of Islam in the East. Beginning in the seventh century three of the five “patriarchates” of the early Christian church—Jerusalem, Antioch, and Alexandria—were captured by followers of Muhammad, who died in 632. This left only Rome and Constantinople as centers of power in the Christian church. Constantinople remained the capital of the Eastern Roman Empire and the Byzantine Empire until 1453, but by then the big East-West divide in the Church was four hundred years old.

The internal factors that caused the schism revolved around doctrinal disagreements and disputes regarding organization and governance. In addition, different rituals and practices had developed in the eastern and western churches. The Schism split essentially along geographic lines, with Greece, Romania, Russia and other Slavic regions, Syria, Egypt, and portions of what is now Turkey becoming the Eastern Orthodox Church while the rest of Europe became the Roman Catholic Church. In 1438 the Council of Florence attempted to reconcile the differences between the Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox Churches, and a few eastern churches rejoined Rome. These churches are now known as the Eastern Catholic Churches.

The Schism of 1054 was bracketed by dramatic events for the Roman Catholic Church in the eleventh century. Pope Gregory VII initiated reforms in the church, and the subsequent reform movement is given his name. It is considered the most important reformation in Church history, and it led to a huge increase in Church membership during the twelfth century. In brief, the Gregorian Reform led to a profound change in Christian thought, from a concentration of the awesome majesty of God to a focus on the humanity of Jesus. This coincided with a rediscovery of Greek scientific thought. Under Pope Leo IX, who was appointed in 1049, the Gregorian Reform led also to a complete restructuring of the church hierarchy, greater importance of priests, and the central role of the sacraments in church life. It also further solidified papal authority. It was during this period that priests became celibate and no longer married.

Another major schism in the Roman Catholic Church was the Protestant Reformation, which occurred during the sixteenth century. This precipitated many parts of the Western Church to reject papal control entirely. At this time Henry VIII of England seized personal control of the Church of England, and Anglicanism separated from the Roman Catholic Church. Other churches in northern Europe were afterwards known as Reformed or Protestant churches.

In the late 1800s a much smaller break occurred after the First Vatican Council, or Vatican I, at which the concept of papal infallibility in matters of morals and Church dogma became official. Small groups of northern European churches broke away from the Vatican to form the Old Catholic Church.

Less than one hundred years later, following two World Wars, Pope John XXIII convened the Second Vatican Council, or Vatican II. The council was animated by a spirit of social activism. Its reforms were as far-reaching as the most important previous councils over the previous fifteen centuries. It encouraged the use of local languages in Mass, as opposed to the Latin that had been used from the beginning. It encouraged the laity to become active participants in the Church. It no longer treated Eastern Orthodox and Protestant churches as heretics, instead stressing the commonality of their beliefs. It expressed regret to Jewish people for prior Christian anti-Semitism, and it honored the spiritual traditions of non-Christian religions. It established as Roman Catholic policy the idea that all humans have a right to religious freedom.

Beliefs & Practices

Core to the beliefs of Catholics is the concept of faith, as it is for all Christian traditions. For Catholics, God is the object of faith. Faith is the belief that Jesus is the Son of God and the Messiah. As the Church evolved, faith came to mean belief not only in Christ, but in the teaching of Christ and obedience to Him. Faith is the key to salvation, which is reconciliation with God. In general, the beliefs and practices of the Roman Catholic Church are established by the central authority of the papacy. As such, they are more easily identified than a comparison of all Christian beliefs and practices, even though there are local variations in how Catholics worship. All of the Catholic Churches agree on a substantial list of beliefs:

• They believe that Jesus Christ is Divine.
• They believe in Transubstantiation, that the bread and wine in the Eucharist truly become the body and blood of Jesus—and thus the soul and divinity of Christ is present in the sacrament.
• They believe that they are direct descendants, in terms of organization and leadership, from the original church that was founded by Jesus and who anointed the Apostle Peter as its first leader. They have a “threefold ordained ministry” consisting of bishops, priests, and deacons. All ministers are ordained by bishops, and sacramental authority is passed down by a “laying-on of hands,” which is in a direct line of succession from the Apostles.
• They believe that the Church is the font of the teachings of Jesus and the Apostles, which is found both in written Scripture and unwritten tradition.
• They believe in the Veneration of Mary, the mother of Jesus, as the Blessed Virgin Mary or Theotokos—“God-bearer” or “Mother of God”—and the veneration of the saints. They believe further that there is a clear distinction between the veneration of saints and the adoration of God.
• They believe in the use of prayers for the dead as well as requests to saints for intercession with God.
• They accept canonizations of saints.
• They believe in the necessity of the sacraments and their efficacy.

The seven sacraments, or “sacred mysteries,” are absolutely central to the life of the Catholic Church. “The liturgical life of the Catholic Church revolves around the Eucharistic sacrifice and the sacraments” (Sacraments para. 1). The sacraments are Baptism, Confirmation, the Eucharist, Penance or Reconciliation, Unction, Holy Orders, and Matrimony.

Baptism is the first sacrament of initiation into Christian faith and as such is the basis of all other sacraments. Roman Catholics regard baptisms in most other Christian denominations to be valid as well. The second sacrament of Christian initiation is Confirmation. In Christian belief, the gift of the Holy Spirit is conferred in Baptism and strengthened in Confirmation, The Eucharist is the third sacrament of Christian initiation, when the faithful partake in and of the Body and Blood of Jesus Christ, meaning they become participants in Christ’s sacrifice.

Penance is the first sacrament of healing. More typically called Confession and Reconciliation or simply Confession, Penance offers the baptized the opportunity to receive spiritual healing through the intermediary role of a priest. The second sacrament of healing is Unction, or Anointing of the Sick.

The other sacraments are Holy Orders and Holy Matrimony. For Catholics the sacraments are visible signs of God’s invisible grace. Therefore, they are of utmost importance in the life of every member of the Church.

Criticism of Catholicism

Catholicism has faced various criticisms throughout its history, like virtually every religion. Historically, many adherents of one faith system have viewed all others as invalid or inferior, giving rise to significant conflict. Wars between Catholics and other groups have tended to reinforce mutual distrust and criticism. As a result, some attacks on the religion are based on stereotypes, misunderstandings, or outright prejudice.

However, Catholicism has also faced more rational critiques, including many from within the faith. The historica proliferation of other Christian denominations and sects reflects the deep-rooted trend of internal dissent. Arguably the most influential example of this was the Protestant Reformation, in which accusations of corruption and superstition in the Roman Catholic tradition led to a fundamental schism within Christianity. Protestant thinkers have continued to critique Catholicism in many contexts over the centuries. Other religious, philosophical, and social belief systems have presented their own notable criticisms of Catholicism as well. For example, the Age of Enlightenment and the development of modern science led to many challenges to various aspects of Catholic doctrine.

A relatively narrow but high-profile criticism of the Roman Catholic Church in the modern era has involved allegations of widespread sexual abuse by priests and church efforts to cover up such crimes. Catholicism's stance on denying ordination to women has been another prominent point of critique, particularly from liberal Western observers.

Bibliography

Gribble, Richard. The Everything Guide to Catholicism: A Complete Introduction to the Beliefs, Traditions, and Tenets of the Catholic Church From Past to Present. Adams Media, 2010.

Hitchcock, James. History of the Catholic Church: From the Apostolic Age to the Third Millennium. Ignatius, 2012.

Krapic, Nina Benedictka. "Global Catholic Population Rising as Number of Priests, Religious Falls." Vatican News, 20 Oct. 2023, www.vaticannews.va/en/church/news/2023-10/fides-catholic-church-statistics-world-mission-sunday.html. Accessed 27 Sept. 2024.

Longenecker, Dwight. Catholicism Pure and Simple. Stauffer, 2012.

O’Collins, Gerald, and Mario Farrugia. Catholicism: The Story of Catholic Christianity. Oxford UP, 2015.

“Sacraments of the Catholic Church.” Catholic Online, www.catholic.org/prayers/sacrament.php. Accessed 27 Sept. 2024.

Schreck, Alan. The Compact History of the Catholic Church: Revised Edition. Servant, 2009.

Young, Julie, and Eric Augenstein. Idiot’s Guides: Catholicism. Alpha, 2015.