Gregorian Reform

Gregorian reform refers to a series of changes made in the operation of the Roman Catholic Church in the eleventh and twelfth centuries. The leaders of the church had moved away from following many long-held practices of the church and had become secularized, or adopted practices used by those outside the church. Over the reign of several popes, including Gregory VII (1020-1085), for whom the reforms are named, many of these improper behaviors were outlawed and the original rules of the church were restored. The process led to dissent among the clergy and to conflict with civil rulers, who wanted to gain and retain authority over the church. Ultimately, the reforms made by Pope Gregory and others would lead to a new fervor among Christians and result in a groundswell of support for the First Crusade.

Background

At the beginning of the ninth century, much of Europe was united under the rule of Charlemagne, also known as Charles the Great. He had become ruler of the territory that had been conquered by the Franks in 771. Charlemagne helped quell a rebellion against Pope Leo III, and in response the Pope named him the Holy Roman Emperor in 800. The vast areas of land under Charlemagne's rule became known as the Carolingian Empire.

Charlemagne made good decisions that led to the development of a strong empire. At his death in 814, however, he was survived by nine sons and nine daughters. He left no clear plan of succession, so when the Carolingian Empire quickly fell apart, large portions of Europe were left in disarray.

The collapse of Charlemagne's empire left a leadership vacuum and led to the rise of the feudal age. Wealthy landowners claimed control over more areas of land and ruled it, sometimes with their own armies. They also took control of the churches in or near their territory, along with the wealth that they held. Many of these feudal lords either placed their friends in positions of authority in the church—a practice known as lay investiture—or took money in exchange for granting church offices such as priest or bishop. This practice was called simony.

In addition, many members of the clergy became very lax in following their vows, particularly the vow of celibacy. This long-standing requirement was flaunted by clergy who took mistresses or even married secretly. Many parishioners, upset about these shortcomings among church leadership, either complained or saw such behavior as justification for their own immoral conduct.

Disturbed by these events, Pope Leo IX took corrective action in the mid-eleventh century. He ordered the priests to give up their wives and mistresses. Pope Leo also sought to remove all the church officials who were appointed by the feudal lords, including those who had purchased their offices. These moves were the precursors of the reforms that would come under Pope Leo's successor, Pope Gregory VII.

Overview

The reforms bear Gregory VII's name because he pressed the changes to a far greater degree than his predecessor or any of his successors. He took an unflinching approach to forcing clergy to honor their vows of celibacy, requiring married priests to renounce their wives and imposing strict consequences on those who remained in unsanctioned relationships with secret wives or lovers. Gregory VII even threatened to defrock, or remove from the priesthood, any clergymen who did not obey the command to give up women.

It took greater effort for the pope to get the feudal lords and civil leaders to end the practices of simony and lay investiture, both of which were forbidden by long-standing church laws. Wresting back control from the lords proved challenging because they were unwilling to give up the financial benefits of selling church offices and the property they had seized from the churches. The pontiff could not allow these practices to stand without affecting both the financial resources of the church and the church's authority. The lay-appointed clergy would often establish rules and policies that were not in line with church laws and practices but that were beneficial to the secular rulers who had given them power.

Gregory used the strongest weapon in his arsenal: In 1075 he threatened to excommunicate clergy who held positions they received through simony or lay investiture. Excommunication means that the person is unable to receive the sacraments of the Church; for Catholics, this means they are ineligible to go to heaven after death. The proclamation did allow for the clergyperson to repent and be restored to the good graces of the Church.

The Pope's declaration of excommunication was among twenty-seven pronouncements made in 1075 in a document known as Dictatus Papae, or the Dictates of the Pope. The decrees sought to restore the authority of the Church and the papacy, even to the point of having authority over the secular rulers. Gregory also established the College of Cardinals, specially chosen clergy responsible for choosing new popes, to take on a role that had sometimes been usurped by lay leaders.

Gregory's reforms led to a standoff between the Pope and Holy Roman Emperor Henry IV. A year after Gregory issued his decree against lay investiture and simony, Henry wrote a letter insisting that Gregory give up the papacy. Gregory promptly excommunicated Henry. The king was young and not very popular with the aristocracy, so not only did they decline to support Henry, many were eager for him to be removed from power. The pressure resulting from the withdrawal of Church support was too much and Henry repented of his request. He appeared at Gregory's home wearing simple wool clothing, and stood outside shoeless for three days in the snow until the Pope finally lifted his declaration of excommunication.

Pope Gregory later encountered other difficulties with nobles over his rules and ultimately died in exile. However, the changes he implemented gave renewed authority and power to the Church. It became increasingly important to secular leaders to have the support and endorsement of the Pope. In return for staying in the Pope's favor, these leaders approved policies that supported church doctrine and requests and undertook various military campaigns. This became a factor when Pope Urban II, who held the papal throne from 1088 to 1099, called for the First Crusade in 1096. Kings and other civil leaders and their subjects, eager for the Pope's favor, willingly went to battle on behalf of Christianity as a result of the restored authority of the papal office.

Bibliography

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