Polynesia (subregion)

The subregion of Polynesia (a term meaning “Many Islands”) is a large grouping of more than one thousand islands clustered in the southern and central Pacific Ocean. It is one of three major Pacific subregions, along with Micronesia and Melanesia. Polynesia extends over a roughly triangular-shaped zone reaching from Hawaii to Easter Island to New Zealand. Some of the hundreds of tropical and subtropical islands within this zone include Samoa, French Polynesia, Tonga, Tuvalu, Pitcairn, Christmas, and the Cook Islands.

Early Polynesian explorers originally populated these islands. Starting around 1595, European explorers began to build influence there. By the twentieth century, foreign powers had colonized or asserted other forms of control over many of the islands. By the late 1940s, some islands were gaining independence or negotiating their own partnerships. In the twenty-first century, the Polynesian peoples are diverse and spread across thousands of miles. They have developed their own forms of government, mostly constitutional democracies. The main economic forces in Polynesia as of the twenty-first century are foreign aid and tourism.

Brief History

Scientists believe that the Polynesia region was uninhabited by humans prior to around 3000 Before the Common Era (BCE). About that time, inhabitants of Southeast Asia began to explore the surrounding oceans, establishing the earliest Ancient Polynesian settlements. The people departed from the area around modern-day Taiwan in small ships, eventually reaching neighboring areas such as Micronesia, from which they proceeded to Melanesia and beyond.

They settled the uninhabited islands they found and began establishing cultures such as the Lapita. The Lapita and other groups continued the tradition of exploration, and soon, they had settled on many of the islands in the region. This ancient process of exploration and expansion ultimately gave rise to modern peoples such as the Tongans, Tahitians, Hawaiians, Maori, Samoans, and Cook Islanders.

The Polynesian people’s ability to navigate far into the oceans and across great distances with only ancient technology remains an impressive feat even in modern times. Exact knowledge of how Polynesian migrations occurred have been obscured by time. Some theories suggest that Polynesians migrated in fleets or that many of their discoveries were accidental due to ships being driven off-course during storms. Other theories suggested that Polynesians were so skilled that they traveled far beyond the destinations proven by historians and archaeologists. Modern scientists have determined that the Polynesian explorers likely used observations of nature—including the arrangement of stars, water currents, weather patterns, and bird migration—to assist in their long journeys.

Explorers settled in Tonga and Samoa by about 900 BCE, and continued expanding until they covered most of the area known today as Polynesia. Settlements grew on the many islands in semi-isolation, forming distinct cultures. Some were based on large family groups or tribes, while others formed kingdoms. Their relationships with neighbors varied just as widely. In some areas, factions lived in peace, marked by communication and trade. Other areas saw strict borders and ongoing wars of invasion and defense.

Over many centuries of development, the early Polynesian people were protected by distance and oceans from outsiders. This changed in 1595, when Spanish sailor Álvaro de Mendaña de Neira began to explore the region. His findings did not stir much interest in Europe—largely because European investors did not see much potential for precious resources there—but it did make Europeans aware of the existence of a huge collection of islands.

Over time, more explorers, most notably British seafarer James Cook, arrived in Polynesia. Slowly but surely, these newcomers began asserting themselves in the region, often to the serious detriment of Indigenous people. Some explorers enslaved people to work on overseas plantations. Others inadvertently spread diseases to which the Indigenous groups had no immunity, leading to deadly epidemics. Still others began colonizing islands. In doing so, some colonizers attempted to extinguish local customs and assimilate Indigenous cultures.

By the twentieth century, most of Polynesia and neighboring regions had been claimed as colonies or possessions by outside forces. Among the most influential of the claimants included Japan, France, and the United Kingdom. When the United States entered World War II in 1941 and began fighting against Japanese forces in the Pacific, Americans and their military allies moved into Polynesia as well. The end of World War II in 1945 led to a period in which traditional colonial and imperial powers reevaluated their political stances and took steps to dismantle many of their overseas claims. During this time, many of the Polynesian islands regained their independence, including Western Samoa.

Overview

Polynesia is a collection of more than one thousand islands located in the southern and central Pacific Ocean. The name Polynesia, meaning “Many Islands,” originated in the 1700s in reference to all Pacific islands. However, this body of islands was so vast that some geographers felt it should be subdivided. One of these was Jules Dumont d’Urville, a French naval officer and explorer, who in 1831 proposed that the islands be divided into three main groups. These groups would be Polynesia, Micronesia, and Melanesia. (Micronesia meant “Small Island,” and Melanesia referred to the dark skin of many of the inhabitants.) This three-way division proved effective and has been retained.

The subregion known in the twenty-first century as Polynesia is often called the Polynesian Triangle because its borders form a generally triangular shape, stretching from Hawaii in the north to Easter Island in the east and New Zealand in the southwest. A few of the major islands within this collection are the Cook Islands, French Polynesia, Tonga, Tuvalu, Pitcairn, Christmas, and Samoa.

In most of the subregion, the climate is tropical or subtropical. Year-round, the islands are mainly temperate and rainy or humid. The consistent warm temperatures have attracted many people to the area. The geography of the islands is much more diverse, however. Geological features range from large mountain ranges, active and inactive volcanoes, and coral atolls. In some areas, rich forests and rainforests flourish, while, in other areas, sandy soils do not support much vegetation beyond grass and shrubs.

The peoples of Polynesia are as varied as its landforms. Determining the exact population of the Polynesian subregion is challenging because of the distinction between people who live in the islands of Polynesia versus people who are actually of Polynesian genetic descent. Many people of non-Polynesian background, including Europeans, Americans, and people from other parts of Asia, currently live on the islands. In general, people of Polynesian descent speak languages that share roots in the Oceanic linguistic family, which derives from the Austronesian tongue of the ancient explorers who first settled the islands. Although Polynesians traditionally practiced polytheistic religions, in the twenty-first century, most have converted to Christianity, mainly Protestantism, with a large Roman Catholic subset.

People of Polynesian descent are likely to identify as members of more specific groups, such as Māori or Hawaiian. These groups may be categorized as Western or Eastern Polynesian. The Western groups tend to derive from the western parts of the Polynesian Triangle, such as Samoa and Tonga, while Eastern groups usually come from eastern territories such as Hawaii, Tahiti, and Easter Island. People of these groups developed their cultures and lifestyles based on the different climatic zones, landscapes, and resources of their home islands.

The governmental organization of the Polynesian islands also falls across a wide scope. Some islands have formed independent countries, including New Zealand, Tuvalu, Samoa, Vanuatu, Tona, and the Solomon Islands. However, many others retain strong associations or other relationships with outside powers, including France, Chile, and the United States. Notably, the Polynesian island of Hawaii became a US state in 1959. Meanwhile, the country of French Polynesia, including more than one hundred smaller islands, is a French administrative area.

The status of independence or associations has played a major role in the political structures of the islands. Most islands have adopted modern forms of government with legislative bodies and written constitutions, although Tonga retains a monarchical form of government. In 2024, the king of Tonga was Tupou VI, who replaced his brother, Tupou V, after Tupou V's 2012 death. In Tonga, the monarchy is hereditary, but the power of the ruler is tempered by a constitution and lawmaking bodies. Islands that have close ties to larger countries, such as American Samoa’s ties to the United States, generally practice extensive powers of home rule in most matters.

The economies of the Polynesian islands have changed greatly over time. Prior to the arrival of Western civilization, Polynesian peoples were mostly self-sufficient. In the twenty-first century, many islands rely on financial support from foreign countries or on the tourism industry. On islands with rich soil, Polynesian people may grow a variety of crops such as coconut, breadfruit, bananas, yams, taro, and coffee. Industries based on the ocean, such as fishing and pearling, and some mining for natural resources, such as iron and nickel, help to supplement some island economies.

As Paris, France, became ready to host the 2024 Olympic Games, attention fell on a planned surfing competition in French Polynesia at Teahupo'o in Tahiti. Social media campaigns fought against planned construction to judge the surfing competition, which many environmentalists argued would damage the surrounding coral reefs. Visits throughout Polynesia were also part of the Pope's international itinerary for 2024, as the Vatican took an increased interest in the area. 

Bibliography

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Dunford, Betty and Reilly Ridgell. Pacific Neighbors: The Islands of Micronesia, Melanesia, and Polynesia. Pacific Resources for Education and Learning, 1996.

Evans, Andrew. “Finding the Fifth Element in French Polynesia.” National Geographic, 27 Nov. 2018, www.nationalgeographic.com/travel/article/french-polynesia-tahiti-what-to-do. Accessed 21 May 2024.

Feast, Lincoln. “Tahiti Surf Judging Tower Sparks Protests against Olympic 'Kooks.'” Reuters, 26 Oct. 2023, www.reuters.com/sports/tahiti-surf-judging-tower-sparks-protests-against-olympic-kooks-2023-10-27. Accessed 22 May 2024.

“French Polynesia.” Lonely Planet, www.lonelyplanet.com/tahiti-and-french-polynesia. Accessed 21 May 2024.

Jennings, Jesse D. The Prehistory of Polynesia. Harvard University Press, 2013.

“Polynesian Cultures.” Polynesian Cultural Center, 2021, www.polynesia.com/polynesian-cultures. Accessed 12 May 2021.

“Polynesian History & Origin.” PBS/Wayfinders: A Pacific Odyssey, www.pbs.org/wayfinders/polynesian6.html. Accessed 23 May 2024.

Thompson, Christina. Sea People: In Search of the Ancient Navigators of the Pacific. William Collins, 2020.

Watkins, Devin. “Pope Francis to Visit 4 Nations across Asia and Oceania in September.” Vatican News, 12 Apr. 2024, www.vaticannews.va/en/pope/news/2024-04/pope-francis-visit-four-asian-states-september.html. Accessed 22 May 2024.