Biological determinism
Biological determinism is the theory that biological factors, particularly genetics, have a direct influence on human behavior and societal roles. Proponents argue that social and economic disparities among different human groups stem from inherited and unchangeable genetic differences. Historically, this perspective has been used to justify social hierarchies, suggesting that certain ethnic groups are innately superior or inferior based on their biological characteristics. Early methods to validate these claims included measurements of physical attributes and later, the use of intelligence quotient (IQ) tests, which were misapplied to support discriminatory practices such as restricted immigration and educational access.
Critics highlight that this approach oversimplifies complex human behaviors, which are shaped by both genetic predispositions and environmental factors. Research shows that the variation within groups often exceeds the differences between them, challenging the notion of a straightforward genetic basis for social behaviors. Moreover, biological and cultural evolutions operate through different mechanisms, with cultural changes occurring rapidly and independently of genetic evolution. The misuse of biological determinism has historically fueled racism and oppression, prompting contemporary experts to warn against its resurgence in modern society, particularly in the context of political and social tensions.
Biological determinism
SIGNIFICANCE: Biological determinists argue that there is a direct causal relationship between the biological properties of human beings and their behavior. From this perspective, social and economic differences between human groups can be seen as a reflection of inherited and immutable genetic differences. This contention has been used by groups in power to claim that stratification in human society is based on innate biological differences. In particular, biological determinism has been used to assert that certain ethnic groups are biologically defective and thus intellectually, socially, and morally inferior to others.
The Use of Inheritance to Promote Social Order
The principle of biological determinism lies at the interface between biology and society. A philosophical extension of the use of determinism in other sciences, such as physics, biological determinists view human beings as a reflection of their biological makeup and hence simple extensions of the genes that code for these biological processes. Long before scientists had any knowledge of genetics and the mechanisms of inheritance, human societies considered certain groups to be innately superior by virtue of their family or bloodlines (nobility), while others were viewed as innately inferior (peasantry). Such views served to preserve the social order. According to evolutionary biologist Stephen Jay Gould, Plato himself circulated a myth that certain citizens were “framed differently” by God, with the ranking of groups in society based on their inborn worth.
As science began to take on a more prominent role in society, scientists began to look for evidence that would justify the social order. Since mental ability is often considered to be the most distinctive feature of the human species, the quantification of intelligence was one of the main tactics used to demonstrate the inferiority of certain groups. In the mid-1800s, measurements of the size, shape, and anatomy of the skull, brain, and other body features were compiled by physician Samuel George Morton and surgeon Paul Broca, among others. These measurements were used to depict races as separate species, to rank them by their mental and moral worth, and to document the subordinate status of various groups, including women. In the first decades of the twentieth century, such measurements were replaced by the intelligence quotient (IQ) test. Although its inventor, Alfred Binet, never intended it to be used in this way, psychologists such as Lewis M. Terman and Robert M. Yerkes promoted IQ as a single number that captured the complex, multifaceted, inborn intelligence of a person. IQ was soon used to restrict immigration, determine occupation, and limit access to higher education. Arthur Jensen (1979) and Richard Herrnstein and Charles Murray (1994) reasserted the claim that IQ is an inherited trait that differs among races and classes.
Problems with the Principle of Biological Determinism
Geneticists and sociobiologists (who study the biological basis of social behavior) have uncovered a variety of animal behaviors that are influenced by biology. However, the genetic makeup of an organism (“nature”) is expressed only within the specific context of its environment (“nurture”). Thus genes that are correlated with behavior usually code for predispositions rather than inevitabilities. For such traits, the variation that occurs within a group is usually greater than the differences that occur between groups. In addition, the correlation between two entities (such as genes and behavior) does not necessarily imply a causal relationship (for example, the incidences of ice cream consumption and drowning are correlated only because both increase during the summer). Complex, multifaceted behaviors such as intelligence and violence are often reified, or treated as discrete concrete entities (as IQ and impulse control, respectively), in order to make claims about their genetic basis. Combined with the cultural and social biases of scientific researchers, reification has led to many misleading claims regarding the biological basis of social structure.
Biological and cultural evolution are governed by different mechanisms. Biological evolution occurs only between parents and offspring (vertically), while cultural evolution occurs through communication without regard to relationship (horizontally) and thus can occur quickly and without underlying genetic change. Moreover, the socially fit (those who are inclined to reproduce wealth) are not necessarily biologically fit (inclined to reproduce themselves). The reductionist attempt to gain an understanding of human culture through its biological components does not work well in a system (society) shaped by properties that emerge only when the parts (humans) are put together. Cultures cannot be understood as biological behaviors any more than biological behaviors can be understood as atomic interactions.
Impact and Applications
Throughout history, biological determinism has been used to justify or reinforce racism, genocide, and oppression, often in the name of achieving the genetic improvement of the human species (for example, the “racial health” of Nazi Germany). Gould has noted that claims of biological determinism tend to be revived during periods when it is politically expedient to do so. In times of economic hardship, many find it is useful to adopt an “us against them” attitude to find a group to blame for social and economic woes or to free themselves from the responsibility of caring for the “biologically inferior” underprivileged. As advances in molecular genetics lead to the identification of additional genes that influence behavior, society must guard against using this information as justification for the mistreatment or elimination of groups that are perceived as “inferior” or “undesirable” by the majority. As political, cultural, racial, and religious differences began to lead to deep societal rifts in the first quarter of the twenty-first century, experts raised cautions about the dangeer of biological determinism, the eugenics it can lead to, and the dangers this presents to society.
Key Terms
- determinismthe doctrine that everything, including one’s choice of action, is determined by a sequence of causes rather than by free will
- intelligence quotient (IQ)performance on a standardized test, often assumed to be indicative of an individual’s level of intelligence
- reductionismthe explanation of a complex system or phenomenon as merely the sum of its parts
- reificationthe oversimplification of an abstract concept such that it is treated as a concrete entity
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