Intelligence testing and immigration legislation

DEFINITION: Use of psychometric standards concerning verbal and nonverbal abilities as part of legislation guiding decisions regarding authorized entry of foreigners into the United States

SIGNIFICANCE:The nascent science of intelligence testing developed in conjunction with growing support for more severe controls on the acceptance of foreign-born entrants to the United States. Proponents of this view were able to highlight some of the early studies of psychologists conducting intelligence testing research as part of their efforts to pass restrictive immigration legislation, even in the face of presidential vetoes.

Intelligence testing has a long, honored tradition in the United States. It originated in France, where psychologist Alfred Binet was the first researcher to categorize student performances on specific reasoning tasks in terms of what he called their “mental ages” between 1904 and 1908. When he judged that students’ mental ages were substantially lower than their chronological ages, he concluded that the test result argued for special remedial programs for the students. In 1912, the German psychologist William Stern defined “intelligence quotient,” or “IQ,” as a ratio of mental age divided by chronological age, multiplied by 100. What began in Europe as an earnest attempt to identify the needs of students with learning disabilities became a source of labeling with serious consequences in twentieth century America.

In 1910, the American psychologist Henry H. Goddard translated Binet’s work into English. Goddard invented the label “moron” for any adult with a mental age between eight and twelve and advocated that those with IQs below 70 should not be allowed to have children. This perspective fit in well with a budding eugenics movement in the United States that advocated genetic engineering to raise intelligence levels, while reducing poverty and criminality. Lewis Terman, a professor at Stanford University, adapted the Binet scale and its measured intelligence quotient into its most commonly used form. Like Goddard, however, he was heavily influenced by biological determinism and at least initially supported the idea that there were racial differences in human intelligence that reflected differing biological makeups. He recanted this view in 1937, but not before the stage was set for changes in important immigration legislation in the United States that reflected his earlier orientation toward the understanding of intelligence.

Intelligence Testing and Immigration Law

The psychological work with the closest influence on later immigration policy was performed by Robert Yerkes of Harvard University. In 1917, when the United States entered World War I, he created the Army Mental Tests and oversaw their administration to 1.75 million Army draftees. Two versions of the tests, “Alpha” and “Beta,” provided written and pictorial modalities so that illiterate servicemen could be tested as well. Carl Brigham, a Princeton University psychologist, analyzed the data that were collected and concluded that native-born draftees had higher IQ scores than immigrants. Moreover, a “Nordic” (northern European) subgroup had higher scores than those from southern and eastern Europe.

Brigham’s work was attacked on methodological grounds, and he recanted his conclusions in 1930. However, he published his findings in 1923, the year before the federal Immigration Act of 1924 greatly restricted foreign entry to the United States. This act initially used the 1890 census as a basis for establishing strict quotas not to exceed 2 percent of those from each country included in the census. It greatly reduced the number of southeastern Europeans allowed into the country and had an impact that would be acutely felt during World War II, when entry was largely denied to European Jews seeking a safe haven from extermination in the Nazi Holocaust. Although detailed analyses of empirical work supporting immigration restrictions do not appear in the congressional hearings concerning this law, the acceptance of biological determinism and the discriminatory treatment of minorities may well have contributed to its passage.

Later Perspectives

Relatively soon after the Immigration Act of 1924 was passed, the popularity of using racial theories of intelligence as guideposts to immigration law and policy waned. There was an increasing realization that test performances reflected familiarity with American culture and language more often than they did an assessment of native intelligence. Meanwhile, members of the psychology-research establishment became more ethnically diverse, and during the aftermath of World War II there was more of an interest in explaining prejudicial attitudes. This was accentuated by a eugenics-oriented policy carried to horrific extremity by the German Nazi regime in Europe.

While the current intelligence testing community is much more sensitive to issues of cultural bias and attempts to develop “culture-fair” or “culture-free” instruments, elements of biological determinism have persisted. The Human Genome Project, which some people have claimed has important implications for controlling psychological disorders related to crime and homelessness, is a prominent example.

In addition, the early twenty-first century U.S. “war on terrorism,” with its restriction of basic civil liberties, perpetuates an orientation toward selecting out undesirables to eliminate their perceived threat. Instead of classifying would-be immigrants as “feebleminded” on the basis of intelligence tests of questionable validity, there has developed a tendency to employ modern biometric technology that enforces even more restrictive policies to bolster homeland security.

Standardized Testing

In the 2020s, standardized tests, a form of intelligence testing, continued to have implications for immigrant communities. These tests were used throughout the American educational system to distinguish academic standing and potential.

These tests have been historically criticized as unfairly weighted against economically disadvantaged communities, where high percentages are home to people of color. In addition, immigrant families may not have attained mastery of English, which is also the language of the tests. Therefore, the tests may not be accurate markers of intelligence aptitude or potential.

In the aftermath of the COVID-19 pandemic that began in 2020, the difficulties entailed for high school students to assemble in testing centers led many colleges and universities to suspend use of standardized tests such as the Scholastic Aptitude Test (SAT) and American College Testing (ACT) for admissions. This trend primarily impacted the admissions process for 2022 and 2023. Researchers noted several important effects of the suspension of these standardized tests. Students accepted into colleges and universities showed more diverse backgrounds. In addition, higher test scores on standardized tests did not necessarily predict success in completing a college degree program.

By 2024, elite universities, such as in the Ivy Leagues, returned to requiring standardized tests for admissions. Proponents argued that such tests effectively distinguished higher aptitude students, including those from disadvantaged communities who otherwise may have gone unnoticed. Detractors countered that income played a disproportionate factor in higher standardized test scores. High School students from families of means could afford test preparation and essay writing services that others could not. Again, higher performance in these application processes did not correlate with superior academic outcomes in college.

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