Sexual predatory behaviors

Type of psychology: Addiction; Biological bases of human behavior; Clinical; Counseling; Developmental; Forensic; Neuropsychology; Psychopathology; Psychotherapy.

Sexuality is a complex human behavior which can become problematic when sexual drive manifests in predatory behavior. While there are a wide variety of sexual behaviors, when the consent of a partner no longer is recognized, predatory behavior with psychiatric and legal implications can develop.

Introduction

While human sexuality is an evolutionarily developed capacity to engage in erotic experiences and responses, throughout history and literature, a theme of a cat-and-mouse pursuit has been consistent. Also through history, there are multitudes of examples of instances where one group would exert dominance over another through demonstrations of sexual aggression, the “spoils of war.” When sexual encounters move from a mutually gratifying exploration to one seeking to use sexuality as a means of control or conquest, the dynamic moves into the realm of sexual predatory behavior.

The term predator spans a large and controversial spectrum, from online communication where someone aggressively seeks a sexual partner; to a rejected suitor who does not terminate the pursuit (stalking); to a trusted adult in a child’s life who manipulates the victim into succumbing to sexual overtures (grooming); to the more conventional perception, the blatantly violent and angry assailant who seeks out a target to rape.

Variants in sexual preference and excitement have been categorized in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (5^th ed., DSM-5) as paraphilias. Some go so far as to distinguish between those whose paraphilias simply represent a twist in sexual excitement from those whose sexual proclivity leads to criminal behavior. Some assert that a sex offender is not necessarily a predator, something that requires seeking multiple victims through predatory means and then exploiting them sexually. Predators are likely to recidivate and resist treatment. A sex offender, by comparison, generally has only one victim, often a family member, tends to stop once caught and is amenable to intervention.

Archetype of the predator

Despite concerted theoretical efforts (and many popular television and movie portrayals), there is yet to be one accepted prime example of the sexual predator. The stereotype of the “dirty old man” lurking around playgrounds seeking to entice children or the rapist lying in wait behind a bush or in a dark alley awaiting a victim to come by have been debunked as mythical. Even conventional wisdom which presumes the ascendency of the Internet with its ease of access to potential victims has led to a proliferation of such predation has been largely discredited.

According to the US Department of Justice’s Center for Sex Offender Management (CSOM), the subset of sex offenders present with the following commonly identified characteristics:

• Deviant sexual arousal, interest, or preferences
• Cognitive distortions
• Social, interpersonal, and intimacy deficits
• Victim empathy deficits
• Poor self-management skills
• Under-detected deviant sexual behaviors
• History of maltreatment

It is important to reiterate that not all of these issues are present in every sex offender. The presence of any of these variables, alone or in combination, does not create a sex offender or necessarily causes anyone to commit sex offenses. Some of these features or characteristics can also be found in samples of other criminals or within the general population. The one consistent characteristic is gender. Although there are some examples of female sexual predators, the majority are male. Despite this lack of typological certitude, there are multitudes of general audience sources which attempt to provide the “profile” of a rapist or stalker. One website listed thirteen “telltale” behaviors, including: bullying, insensitivity/focus on self, excessive anger, brooding, mood swings, and a jock/gorilla mentality.

Molestation

When sexual aggression does not involve the application of overt violence, it often is categorized as molestation. Commonly, this is how child sexual abuse is labeled. Some claim that the lack of violence mediates this being identified as predatory behavior. However, as initiating the encounter usually involves extensive preparation and manipulation—grooming—to secure the youth’s participation, the distinction is problematic. The primary or exclusive adult sexual interest in prepubescent children is pedophilia; pubescent individuals approximately 11–14 years old, hebephilia; and ephebophilia, which later adolescence, approximately 15–19 years old. It is argued that the mere presence of such attraction does not indicate a sexually predatory nature; an overt act is required. Further, despite perceptions that adult attraction to children as a uniquely modern phenomenon, conflicting notions of childhood have been an ongoing struggle between social and legal norms and were prevalent in Victorian society.

Stalking

Unwanted attention directed at an individual can rise to the level of stalking. It commonly, but not universally, involves a sexual component. Generally, stalkers are categorized as psychotic or nonpsychotic. Most are nonpsychotic and may exhibit mental illnesses such as major depression, adjustment disorder, or substance dependence, or any variety of personality disorders (e.g., antisocial, narcissistic, paranoid, borderline, or dependent). The nonpsychotic stalker’s pursuit of victims involves several psychological factors, including projection of blame, anger, dependency, obsession, minimization, hostility, denial, and jealousy. Conversely, the stalker often has no angry feelings towards the victim, but simply a longing that cannot be fulfilled. One attempt to categorize stalking behavior theorized five distinct types. Despite only one specifically mentioning sexual intent or predatory behavior, either or both may be involved regardless of underlying motivation.

Mullen, Pathé and Purcell’s five stalkers types:

Rejected – seek to avenge, reverse, or correct, or a rejection (e.g., divorce, separation, termination);

• Resentful – mostly seek to frighten and distress the victim because of a sense of being wronged by the victim;
• Intimacy seekers - seek to establish a loving relationship with their victim, believing fate or destiny is bringing them together;
• Incompetent suitors – present a fixation or sense of entitlement to an intimate relationship with those who have attracted their romantic interest;
• Predatory - spy on the victim in order to prepare and plan an attack – often sexual – on the victim.

Rape

Rape is sexual assault generally involving sexual intercourse or sexual penetration of some form committed without a person’s consent. It involves aggression on a spectrum ranging from coercion, abuse of authority, physical force, or against a person who is incapable of valid consent, such as one who is unconscious, incapacitated, or unable to legally consent. While commonly viewed as crime of aggression, it can also involve otherwise consensual sexual relationships which are deemed inappropriate by law, i.e., statutory rape. The definition has evolved as societal norms change. Historically, in many societies, rape was deemed a crime of theft of a man’s property (a husband or father), meaning that by definition a wife could not be raped by her husband. However, marital rape is now more commonly considered as a form of domestic violence. Similarly, acquaintance rape, or date rape, is recognized as a non-consensual act despite the parties having, at least initially, shared a potential romantic/sexual interest in one another. Such assaults can involve overt violence, perhaps after an advance is rebuffed, or opportunistically follow one person’s intoxication and subsequent incapacitation. A more predatory practice involves bringing an incapacitating drug to the encounter, the obvious intent to initiate the sexually assault once the companion is unable to resist.

Relationship to psychopathy

Robert Hare is well known for his work to categorize and help identify those who suffer from psychopathy; generally defined as a personality disorder characterized by enduring antisocial behavior, diminished empathy and remorse, and disinhibited or bold behavior. Hare’s additional specific features strike a common theme with those associated with sexual predators. Interpersonal/emotional features include: glib and superficial; egocentric and grandiose; lack of remorse or guilt; and, lack of empathy. Social deviance factors include: impulsive; early behavior problems; need for excitement; and adult antisocial behavior. Some researchers assert that psychopaths have a preference for violent sexual behavior. There is evidence that psychopathic offenders are more likely to commit rape than other offenders, and rapists score higher on measures of psychopathy than do other offenders. Additionally, there is evidence that boldness can contribute to the prediction of positive attitudes toward sexually predatory tactics, both directly and through its interaction with disinhibition.

Confining sexually violent predators

The US Supreme Court’s 1997 decision in Kansas v. Hendricks allowed individual states or the federal government to impose stringent oversight on sexually violent predators (SVP) after the completion of their original sentence if found to have a “mental abnormality” or personality disorder and deemed likely to commit additional sexual offenses. They may be forcibly committed to a mental facility after release from prison, or incur stricter reporting requirements than other sex offenders. In many states, the legal test for “mental abnormality” is much lower than for mental illness.

Conceptual criticism

While forms of sexual violence have existed essentially since the dawn of humanity, some argue that the evolution of the term “sexual predator” has arisen more from a political agenda following a spate of horrific and highly publicized cases in the late twentieth century. In response, throughout the U.S., laws were passed creating requirements for the registration of sex offenders after completion of incarceration, restrictions on the geographical location of housing for such people, and the continue civil commitment of SVPs. However, the efficacy of such interventions, indeed, the prevalence of sexual predatory behavior has been called into question. One analysis of the legislative debate leading to the federal version of Megan’s Law (creating a federal database of sexual predators) revealed that much of the parliamentary debate focused on evocative anecdotes of particularly heinous crimes against children, failing to reveal how rare such crimes were or detailing how the proposed law would affect many more people than just those who committed such horrendous offenses. Furthermore, research by the Crimes Against Children Research Center found the publicity about online “predators” who prey on naive children using trickery and violence to be largely inaccurate. It was found that Internet sex crimes involving adults and juveniles are more likely fit the definition of statutory rape rather than a more predatory model of sexual assault or pedophilic child molestation.

Bibliography

Association for the Treatment of Sexual Abusers (ATSA). http://www.atsa.com/

Mullen, P.E., Pathé, M., Purcell, R. (2008). Stalkers and their Victims, 2e. Cambridge University Press: Cambridge.

Ramsland, K. & McGrain, P. N. (2009) Inside the Minds of Sexual Predators. Santa Barbara, CA: Praeger.

RAINN (Rape, Abuse & Incest National Network). https://rainn.org/

Salter, A. (2004). Predators: Pedophiles, Rapists, and Other Sex Offenders. New York: Basic Books.