Balkan Nationalism (19th and 20th century)
Balkan Nationalism in the 19th and 20th centuries emerged as a powerful socio-political movement among various ethnic groups in the Balkan Peninsula, which had a complex history of imperial rule primarily under the Ottoman and Habsburg Empires. The roots of this nationalism can be traced back to the desire for self-governance and the response to oppressive local officials. Initially, many peasants sought to replace cruel regional rulers rather than to seek full independence from the Ottoman Empire. However, as discontent grew, it fueled rebellions that ultimately aimed for national self-determination.
By the early 1900s, several Balkan nations, including Serbia, Greece, and Bulgaria, successfully expelled Ottoman forces through collective military efforts. Despite achieving independence, these newly formed nations struggled to maintain peace due to longstanding ethnic rivalries and territorial disputes. Notably, the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand by a Serbian nationalist in 1914 marked a pivotal moment that ignited World War I, further entrenching the region in conflict. Throughout the 20th century, Balkan Nationalism continued to shape the political landscape, leading to ongoing tensions and conflicts, especially during the Cold War. The dissolution of the Soviet Union allowed for further expressions of nationalism, which persisted into the latter part of the century and beyond.
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Balkan Nationalism (19th and 20th century)
"The Balkans" refers to an area of southeastern Europe situated on the Balkan Peninsula, which has been home to a variety of nations and cultures throughout history. For centuries, much of the Balkan Peninsula was under the control of the western Hapsburg Empire or the eastern Ottoman Empire. The two empires were often at war. Eventually, the various people within the Balkans demanded the right to govern themselves. They discovered nationalism, a strong pride in their individual nations and drove out all imperial powers—but then splintered into smaller nationalist and ethnic groups. The Balkans became a conflict-ridden and unstable group of states, each driven by intense pride in its own existence and a firm belief in its superiority to neighboring Balkan states. Balkan Nationalism even motivated Serbian revolutionaries to assassinate Hapsburg ruler Archduke Franz Ferdinand in 1914, which caused World War I.
Overview
The Balkan nationalism of the 1800s and 1900s began with rebellion against the Ottoman Empire. Ottoman governance in the Balkans had once been relatively peaceful, which benefitted both the rulers and the population. The common people generally fared better under the early Ottomans than under many European monarchs. However, the regional officials of the Ottoman government became crueler over time, abusing the peasants and maintaining their rule through torture and intimidation. As small groups of rebels rose up against the regional officials, violent crackdowns began. This escalated to full-blown war between the Christian Serbian populace and the militant Muslim Ottoman rulers.
At this point in Balkan history, the rebels were not fighting for independence or self-governance. They were content with being ruled by the distant Ottomans. The peasants simply wanted the cruel officials deposed and new benevolent officials brought to power. The leaders of the rebellion wrote letters to the Ottoman Sultan assuring him of their loyalty but explaining that they could no longer live under the rule of the tyrants he had placed over them. Eventually, the Serbian rebels took action and captured and executed their former regional rulers during the summer of 1804. Resistance from the armies loyal to the Sultan continued until the Sultan himself intervened; then negotiations between the Sultan and the Serbian rebels began.
Originally, the Sultan had been prepared to grant the rebels almost all their demands in exchange for peace. Then Russia and Napoleonic France became involved. The countries began stationing troops in the Balkans to reinforce rulers they approved of, and peace no longer seemed to be an option. The Balkan territories were a reason for a showdown between the larger empires, neither of which particularly cared about the Balkan people. The Serbian rebels allied themselves with Russia while France urged the Ottomans to violently end the rebellion. Open war over the Balkans raged for years. However, when Napoleon attacked Russia as part of his European conquests, Russia was forced to withdraw its support to defend its own territory. Now alone, the Serbian rebels could not hold off entire armies from the Ottoman Empire and were quickly defeated. Their leader, Karadjordje, fled to Austria.
Throughout their history, the various Balkan territories have been coveted by large empires wishing to strike at other large empires. Because of this, the people of the Balkans, which included the modern Greeks, Romanians, Serbians, Yugoslavians, wanted to create their own states. Though it took decades and many failed rebellions, most accomplished this goal. In 1913, the allied forces of Greece, Montenegro, Serbia, and Bulgaria finally forced the Ottoman Empire out of the Balkans. Though they formed their own nations, the Balkan states failed to coexist peacefully. The various ethnic groups held longstanding grudges against each other. When the Hapsburg monarch Ferdinand I ordered Bulgaria to attack its revolutionary allies immediately after the Ottomans were driven out, Bulgaria was badly defeated. Its former allies then took large chunks of Bulgarian territory, which led to land disputes and more nationalist movements within the tumultuous region.
At this point in 1914, most large ethnic groups in the Balkans had formed their own country. Furthermore, most were backed by one or more competing European empires. Archduke Franz Ferdinand was heir to the Austro-Hungarian Empire's throne and traveled to Bosnia to inspect the armed forces in the last Balkan territory held by the Austro-Hungarian Empire. He was warned that traveling to this area of Bosnia was dangerous because of Serbian nationalists there who wanted the area to be free of imperial rule. Despite this, Ferdinand insisted on touring in an open-roof limousine with minimal security. A bomb was thrown at his car but he was not injured. When Ferdinand continued the tour, he and his wife were shot and killed by a Serbian nationalist who spotted the limousine on a side street when it made a wrong turn. Austria-Hungary and its allies declared war on Serbia, which was allied with Russia, which in turn was allied with France, and World War I began.
The Balkan states were a reason for the fighting in both World Wars. Following their historic patterns, the young nations were split among the opposing sides of the conflicts and used as tools against their own best interests. This continued throughout the Cold War, when most Balkan nationalists sternly resented heavy influence from the Soviet Union. All the Balkan states regained independence following the formal dissolution of the Soviet Union. Nationalist motivations continued to cause conflict between the Balkan nations throughout the twentieth century.
Bibliography
Llewellyn, Jennifer et al. "The Balkans as a Cause of World War I." Alpha History. Alpha History. Web. 5 Nov. 2014. http://alphahistory.com/worldwar1/balkans/
Sowards, Steven W. "Lecture 22: Balkan Politics in the Cold War Years." MSU.edu. Michigan State University. 11 Jun. 2009. Web. 5 Nov. 2014. http://staff.lib.msu.edu/sowards/balkan/lect22.htm
Glenny, Misha. "A Confederacy of Peasants." The Balkans: Nationalism, War, and the Great Powers, 1804-1999." New York Times. Web. 5 Nov. 2014. https://www.nytimes.com/books/first/g/glenny-balkans.html
The History Channel Website. "Archduke Franz Ferdinand Assassinated." The History Channel Website. A&E Television Networks. Web. 5 Nov. 2014. http://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/archduke-franz-ferdinand-assassinated
The History Channel Website. "The First Balkan War Ends." The History Channel Website. A&E Television Networks. Web. 5 Nov. 2014 http://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/the-first-balkan-war-ends