Nationalism
Nationalism is a complex and evolving concept that refers to the identification and loyalty individuals feel toward their nation or ethnic group. It encompasses a range of perspectives, including primordialism, which views nationalism as a natural human inclination to form distinct groups based on ethnicity, and modernism, which sees it as a product of contemporary societal structures. Nationalism can serve both unifying and divisive roles, fostering a sense of community and identity while also potentially leading to conflict and exclusion of minority groups.
Historically, nationalism gained prominence during the nineteenth century, influenced by romantic and liberal movements that emphasized the connection between governance and the people's cultural or ethnic identity. Significant figures such as Johann Gottfried Herder and Karl Marx contributed to the discourse on nationalism, offering varying interpretations of how nations are formed and maintained. Additionally, nationalism manifests in various forms, including left-wing nationalism, pan-nationalism, and ultranationalism, each with unique characteristics and implications.
The impact of nationalism on global events has been profound, shaping historical conflicts such as the World Wars and contemporary issues related to immigration and trade. Despite predictions of its decline in the face of globalization, nationalism remains a significant force in the twenty-first century, influencing political dynamics and social movements worldwide.
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Nationalism
The definition of nationalism is multifaceted, and its meaning has shifted over the years. Some scholars view the issue as a chicken-or-egg question, meaning, do countries create nationalism or does nationalism create countries?
The primordialist perspective, a philosophy influenced by German romanticism, views nationalism as the result of the human tendency to organize into distinct groups based on ethnicity and national identity. The modernist view of nationalism contends that it is a recent phenomenon and that national identity requires the structure of modern society to become established. Important symbols of nationalism include flags, anthems, languages, and borders. Nationalism can be a unifying or a divisive force. The negative aspects of nationalism have caused many wars, while its positive components have unified people into viable, productive countries that cooperate in striving to create a better world for all people.
Background
The nineteenth-century romantic movement and the emergence of liberal political philosophy broadened the definition of nationalism. The liberal idea was that a state should be based on a “people” rather than on dynasty, theology, or conquest. German philosopher Johann Gottfried Herder introduced the romantic concepts of “feeling” and “identity,” a version of ethnic nationalism in which the state obtains its political legitimacy from historic, cultural, or hereditary groups, with ethnicity remaining politically distinct. Von Herder expressed his ideas in his theory of the volksgeist, a German word that means “spirit of the people”; he believed that each country has a unique spirit, or character, and he encouraged German-speaking peoples to create a national and cultural identity. He also believed that human structures were temporary; thus, tradition acted as a narcotic when it inhibited politics and education and prevented intellectual progress in individuals and nations.
American historian of anthropology George W. Stocking, Jr., theorized that Herder’s volkgeist concept influenced the American anthropological idea of culture, although it contained some ambiguities and modifications. Romanticism and liberal political nationalism were both abstract, middle-class ideas that manifested themselves differently in different countries. In France, the government considered almost anyone loyal to the French state a “citizen,” which, in practice, resulted in much uniformity and the disappearance of regional languages and customs. Most anthropologists believe that the United States evolved to this ideal of civic inclusive nationalism.
In Germany and German-speaking countries, political circumstances dictated defining the nation ethnically by speaking German and having a German name. The ethnic idea of nationalism became pivotal for the German-speaking Slavic middle classes of cities like Prague and Agram in what are now the Czech Republic and Croatia, respectively.
All nationalists did not turn into chauvinistic and aggressive citizens, but nationalism did exclude some groups or relegate them to minority status. By the end of the nineteenth century, nationalistic states were unevenly distributed over Europe and Asia, and movements of colonized countries toward organized nationalism and independence stirred around the world.
Overview
Scientist Charles Darwin originated the evolutionary primordialist view of nationalism, which reflected his belief that humans follow the ancient custom of organizing into groups based on their ethnic origins and the traditions and customs that stem from them. In the 1990s, American anthropologist John Tooby and his wife, the psychologist Leda Cosmides, expanded Darwin’s ideas.
Karl Marx theorized that a bourgeois revolution and an industrial economy were requirements to create nations. This modernist theory of nationalism contends that nationalism thrives in modern societies that have a self-sustaining industrial economy, a central government providing authority and unity, and a centralized language. Modernism theorists state that traditional societies do not have an industrial, self-sustaining economy, but they do have divided authorities and multiple languages that make communication between some groups impossible. Karl Marx, Max Weber, and Emile Durkheim are considered to be among the founders of modern sociology and leading theorists who helped develop the modernist interpretation of nations and nationalism.
Nationalism Variations
Nationalism has mutated as often and as skillfully as the human societies that have adhered to it. Left-wing nationalism is any political movement combining left-wing, communist politics with nationalism. The formation of the African National Congress in South Africa and Fidel Castro’s 26th of July Movement, which launched the Cuban Revolution in 1959, are examples of left-wing nationalism. Pan-nationalism focuses on large territories and clusters of ethnic groups. By 1942, Nazi Germany controlled a list of territories, puppet states, collaborationist states, and captured areas under military control, but the Nazi concept of Lebensraum did not fit the strict definition of pan-nationalism. Pan-Russian ideas influenced the Soviet Union, but no strictly Soviet ethnicity, culture, or language united the vast Soviet empire.
Ultranationalism is zealous nationalism stretched beyond its limits, often featuring support for extremist ideas that include authoritarianism, an end to immigration, and expelling or oppressing minority populations within the country’s borders. This extreme form of nationalism sometimes produces demagogues and dictators, imaginary enemies, an idealized ethnic or population group, stringent polices in law enforcement, strict tariffs to limit international trade, militarism, populism, tight controls of business and production, and propaganda. When this form of nationalism remains unchecked, it can lead to war, secession, or genocide.
Fascism is a form of ultranationalism that relies on a totalitarian state and expansion; fascist leaders stress the individual’s submission to the state and the need for the individual to exhibit unquestioning loyalty to the head of state. Instead of the Marxist idea of class struggle, fascism stresses the idea of class collaboration to promote ethnic or cultural nationalism.
Nationalism in all of its variations continues to shape history and politics. It was a contributing cause of World War I and World War II, the Cold War, and the more localized wars of the 1960s and 1970s. Nationalism did not end with the Cold War in 1991, but remained a leading local and international force that continued to motivate people. Some academics and politicians predicted that nationalism would disintegrate under the weight of pan-national or economic organizations, yet in the twenty-first century it remains firmly in place and exerts a tremendous influence on world events. In fact, nationalism is at the heart of many modern issues faced by countries, perhaps most notably immigration and trade.
Bibliography
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