Fascism
Fascism is a political ideology characterized by an emphasis on nationalism, often accompanied by dictatorial power, suppression of dissent, corporatization, and, in many instances, racism. Emerging in the aftermath of World War I, fascism found expression in several regimes during the interwar period, notably in Italy under Benito Mussolini and in Germany with Adolf Hitler. Central to fascism is the belief in the supremacy of the state over individual rights, where the state exerts control over political, economic, and social aspects of life, demanding loyalty from its citizens. Economically, fascism occupies a middle ground between capitalism and socialism, where private corporations function under strict state governance.
Fascist states often adopt militaristic policies, driven by a desire for national self-sufficiency, which can lead to aggressive foreign policies and the identification of both external and internal enemies. The ideology fosters compliance through patriotic propaganda and traditional values, while the extreme manifestations of fascism can lead to discrimination and even genocide against perceived societal threats. Despite the decline of prominent fascist regimes after World War II, elements of fascism continue to emerge globally, with far-right movements and authoritarian leadership observed in various countries, reflecting a resurgence of nationalist sentiments. The complexity of these movements generates ongoing debate about their connections to historical fascism, especially in contemporary contexts.
Fascism
Fascism is a political ideology, or way of thinking, built on the notion of nationalism and characterized by dictatorship, suppression, corporatization, and, in many cases, racism. Fascism first emerged as a distinct political concept in the aftermath of World War I. While several fascist regimes came to power during the interwar period, they either collapsed at the end of World War II or gradually fell from prominence in the years that followed. Regardless, fascism has continued to find adherents in countries around the world.
The Philosophy of Fascism
At its core, fascism is a nationalist political philosophy, which means that it places loyalty to and reverence for the state above all else. In most fascist societies, the state is an all-powerful entity that directly controls, or is at least closely tied into, virtually every aspect of life. The fascist state exerts its authority over a country's political, economic, social, and moral mechanisms and demands unfaltering obedience and commitment in return.
The specific political viewpoints upon which fascism is based are directly related to the political ideologies dominant at the time of its founding: democracy and socialism. Fascism is viewed by its proponents as a sort of middle ground between these two sociopolitical extremes. This point is best demonstrated in fascism's unique approach to economic design. Unlike the capitalist economies of democratic nations, in which the means of production are controlled by private corporations, or the communist economies of socialist nations, in which the means of production are controlled by the state, fascist nations are built around an economic system in which these means are controlled by private corporations that are strictly governed by the state. Theoretically, this approach effectively eliminates the alleged profit-obsession and wasteful competition of capitalism, as well as the middle-class persecution typically seen in communism. In practice, it means that the state dictates what products are available, determines the quantities in which these products should be produced, sets prices and wages, controls working conditions, and more. Further, because fascism is a nationalist ideology, fascist governments typically outlaw or place strict limits on imports as a means of promoting national self-sufficiency. This, in turn, means that fascist states are, by necessity, militaristic because they can only take advantage of foreign resources if they seize them by force.
As a result of their dependence on conquest, fascist states are usually highly militarized and constantly ready for war. Fascists typically view the ability to successfully wage war as the pinnacle of human achievement. In their quest to strengthen their nation, fascists aggressively seek out and identify enemies, whether real or imagined, and pursue their conquest or eradication for the greater good of the state. While foreigners are the obvious targets for this aggression, fascists also often focus their attention on looking for those within their own societies whom they can label as enemies. In many cases, this leads to discrimination against citizens who harbor political views that conflict with the state or who are simply of a certain ethnic or racial background. In extreme cases, fascists have even resorted to genocide as a means of eliminating the undesirable elements of their societies.
To generate support for the state and its military endeavors, fascists commonly rely on the use of patriotic symbols and carefully conceived political propaganda designed to unify citizens and encourage them to embrace the spirit of nationalism. Fascists also typically seek to foster compliance by emphasizing the importance of traditional family structures and gender roles and demonizing any behaviors or attitudes that deviate from the socially constructed norm. By celebrating traditional values and glorifying the possibility of a future unhindered by modern decadence, fascists look to create a morally grounded culture that will be unwavering in its support of the state.
The History of Fascism
The birth of fascism was directly tied to the effects of World War I. When that brutal conflict concluded, many of the defeated soldiers who returned home to their respective nations did so with a newfound taste for warfare and a desire for power. These circumstances quickly led to the formation of aggressive, military-themed political organizations known as militia parties. Before long, several of these groups grew to become major parties with the power to exert significant influence over their countries' political development. This happened in Italy, a nation that had allied itself with Great Britain, the United States, and France during the war.
In the aftermath of World War I, Italy was swept up in a wave of nationalism led by Gabriele D'Annunzio, a poet, activist, and war hero who believed that Italy should take its place among the world's superpowers. After a failed attempt to establish his own independent state in part of present-day Croatia, however, D'Annunzio found himself exiled and politically sidelined. Though D'Annunzio was now out of the picture, he left behind a thriving nationalist party that soon fell into the hands of Benito Mussolini. After quickly seizing power and becoming prime minister in 1922, Mussolini turned Italy into Europe's first functional fascist state.
Mussolini's rise in Italy coincided with the rise of Adolf Hitler in Germany. In 1920, Hitler emerged as the charismatic leader of the National German Socialist Workers Party, commonly called the Nazi Party. In fewer than twenty years, Hitler and his fascist party grew strong enough to launch an all-out attack on Europe that led to World War II and the death of millions.
While Hitler was ramping up for war, a third fascist party, led by Generalissimo Francisco Franco, took control of Spain in 1936. Because Franco chose not to side with Hitler and Mussolini during World War II, his regime, unlike either of theirs, survived the war's end and lasted until his death in 1975. Though other quasi-fascist and authoritarian regimes came to power globally into the first decades of the twenty-first century, none yet had the influence or impact of those that arose from the ashes of World War I.
At the same time, commentators noted that the ideology of fascism remained in some form in many countries, with far-right movements becoming particularly prominent by the 2020s amid increased digital methods of communication like social media. Even in democratic societies such as the United States, which saw a surge occur during Donald Trump's presidency between 2017 and 2021, beliefs such as nationalism, xenophobia, and White supremacy were held by everyone from individuals to organizations and even leaders. Many pointed to Vladimir Putin's lengthy reign in Russia and, specifically, his oversight of a militaristic action in ordering an unjustified invasion of Ukraine in early 2022, as another major example of fascism. According to reports, Putin's goal was to bring Russia back to historical glory through a violent retaking of what was considered rightful territory and a calculated demonization of Ukrainians. While many experts and others debated the use of the term fascism, several commentators argued that an increased number of populist, authoritarian figures around the world, such as Hungary's long-reigning Viktor Orbán and Argentina's Javier Milei, elected in 2023, represented threats to democracy that at least echoed fascist ideology in some way.
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