George II

Elector of Hanover (1727-1760) and king of Great Britain and Ireland (r. 1727-1760)

• Born: November 10, 1683
• Birthplace: Herrenhausen Palace, Hanover (now in Germany)
• Died: October 25, 1760
• Place of death: London, England

George II continued the relationship of Crown and Parliament developed under his father George I, which gave the king extensive powers in foreign affairs and the appointment of ministers but required him to appoint ministers and follow policies that the Parliament would support. Under George II this system of government was adapted to the needs of a dynamic, expanding nation that, by the end of his reign, had established itself as a major European power and the dominant force in overseas trade and colonies.

Early Life

Unlike his father, George I, George II (born George Augustus) was given an opportunity to know his kingdom before he ascended the throne. He was born in Hanover, a medium-sized north German state. His father, George Louis, was elector of Hanover and lawful successor to Queen Anne. His mother was accused of adultery and was shut up in a castle, where she spent the rest of her life. George Augustus was never permitted to see his mother, which was one of many grievances he held against his father. He performed bravely in the War of the Spanish Succession (1701-1714), in which Hanover was allied with Great Britain and other states against the ambitions of King Louis XIV of France. When Queen Anne died in 1714, George Louis of Hanover became King George I. George Augustus came with his father to England, where he was created prince of Wales and recognized as heir to the throne.

In 1705, George Augustus married Caroline of Ansbach, a German princess, who became his close partner in politics and one of the most remarkable women of the time. Caroline grew up at the courts of the elector of Saxony and the king of Prussia, where she was well educated and developed a warm, cheerful personality and broad intellectual and cultural interests. She was a handsome woman, with fair skin, blue eyes, rich blonde hair, and a buxom figure. George was quite dependent upon her—politically, personally, and sexually—although he kept mistresses whom he flaunted openly. Their eldest son, Frederick Louis, was born in 1707, and seven other children followed. Although her life with George was often personally unhappy, Caroline knew that her husband relied on her for political advice and encouragement.

Antagonism between father and eldest son was characteristic of the Hanover monarchs, and it was soon revealed to the British public. When George I made his first return visit to Hanover, in 1716, he refused to designate the prince of Wales as regent, appointing him Guardian of the Realm with closely restricted powers. Father and son broke openly in 1717, when George I banished the prince and princess from the palace and seized custody of their children. About the same time, a split took place in the Whig ministry, as Lord Townshend and Robert Walpole went into opposition. It was also characteristic of Hanoverian politics that opposition groups would rally behind the prince of Wales, who disposed of significant patronage and parliamentary influence and who represented the future. The prince and his charming wife established a lively court at Leicester House in London, which became the center of political opposition and polite society. Three years later, Townshend and Walpole rejoined the Whig ministry and the king and the prince were reconciled. The prince believed that Walpole had abandoned him for the sweets of office, but Walpole had established himself in the confidence of Princess Caroline, a relationship that bore political fruit as long as she lived.

Life’s Work

George I died in June, 1727, and the prince succeeded to the throne as King George II. George I had realized that the power of the Crown in the British system of government was limited, not only by law but also by the need to obtain parliamentary support for the ministry and its policies. George I relied upon the Whigs to provide leadership in Parliament, for their loyalty to the Hanover Dynasty was unquestioned. The Whig leader, Robert Walpole, was a master at using patronage and partisanship to maintain a strong following in the House of Commons. Under George I, the ministers normally met without the king, which was an important step toward the modern system of cabinet government.

George II struggled against the dependence that George I had accepted, but usually without success. Unlike his father, he was active and talkative, with an astonishing memory for genealogies, dates, treaties, regimental symbols, and European courts. He was physically brave but a political coward, and Walpole, with the support of Queen Caroline, learned that he could usually get his way. George II’s first attempt at an independent exercise of royal power was a humiliating failure. The new king asked Sir Spencer Compton, a Leicester House intimate, to prepare his opening speech to Parliament. Robert Walpole had resigned, and it was expected that Compton would be designated to lead the ministry. Compton confessed that he did not know how to proceed, and Walpole obligingly stepped in and wrote the speech. When Parliament reassembled, Walpole proposed a large addition to the Civil List, which was the financial provision for the king, the royal family, the royal household, and the civil government. George II was so pleased that he reappointed Walpole first lord of the treasury, a post from which Walpole established a strong personal grip on the cabinet and the House of Commons. Although some politicians tried to influence the king through his mistresses, Walpole possessed the confidence of Queen Caroline, which was decisive. Walpole once remarked that he “took the right sow by the ear.”

In the reign of George I, the principal concern of British government had been to establish the Hanover Dynasty and restore political stability after a period of bitter partisanship. When George II took the throne, these objectives had been achieved. The reign of George II was dominated by the problems that arose in a dynamic, expanding nation that was no longer satisfied with the cautious, defensive policies of the previous reign. As the years passed, the rigid domination of Walpole was resented, and he was accused of being a “prime minister,” a charge he vigorously denied. An energetic political opposition arose, led by the former Tory leader, Lord Bolingbroke, and dissident Whigs. They made effective use of the press and public agitation to attack the power and policies of Walpole. The opposition found an eloquent voice in William Pitt the Elder, a brilliant orator, who attacked Walpole’s policy of peace and the king’s partiality for Hanover. When Frederick Louis, prince of Wales, came of age in 1737, he followed the trail blazed by his father, making Leicester House again the center of opposition politics. The death of Queen Caroline, the same year, weakened Walpole at court while the emergence of the prince gave legitimacy to the opposition.

In this period of partisanship, George II generally supported Walpole, although his temperament inclined him to greater agressiveness than Walpole usually displayed. The major issues arose in foreign policy, where the king normally exercised the most influence. As elector of Hanover, George II wished to intervene in the War of the Polish Succession (1733-1735), but he was dissuaded by Walpole, who wished to avoid costly continental entanglements. In 1739, a crisis arose with Spain as a result of the efforts of British merchants and sea captains to expand the illegal trade with the Spanish colonies. George II was eager for war with Spain, in which he was supported by the duke of Newcastle, secretary of state. Walpole was overruled, and Great Britain entered jauntily into a war for which it was ill-prepared. The next year, war broke out between Austria and Prussia; this conflict, known to historians as the War of the Austrian Succession, was to last from 1740 to 1748. George II rushed to the aid of the Austrians to protect Hanover against threats from France and Prussia. Walpole was swept along by the tide, and when the war went badly and the House of Commons turned against him, he found it best to resign.

The resignation of Walpole, in 1742, was a landmark in British constitutional development. Despite the acknowledged right of the king to appoint his own ministers, it demonstrated that the king could not keep in office a minister who had lost the confidence of the House of Commons. In the political crisis that followed, George II was forced to come to terms with the hated prince of Wales and bestow office upon politicians who had opposed him. In 1746, George II quarreled with a ministry led by the duke of Newcastle and Henry Pelham, successors to Walpole as leaders of the Whigs. The king asked two personal favorites, Lord Carteret and Lord Bath, to form a ministry, but he was compelled to back down when they could not obtain parliamentary support. Newcastle and Pelham returned to office, stronger than before. George II had learned an important lesson. Although he grumbled that “the people are king in this country,” thereafter he kept in mind the limits within which the king could control the composition of ministries.

In the meantime, George II was actively involved in the War of the Austrian Succession. His main concern was to protect Hanover from French threats. In 1743, he personally commanded an army of British and Hanoverian troops in the Rhineland, where he led his soldiers into a French trap. George II fought bravely in the face of French gunfire and turned certain defeat into victory when the French cavalry charged prematurely. The Battle of Dettingen was the last time that any British king led his troops on the battlefield.

In 1745, George II was confronted with the last important challenge to the Hanover Dynasty when Prince Charles (Bonnie Prince Charlie), the Stuart claimant to the throne, landed in Scotland. The Highlanders rose in support of the man they regarded as their rightful king, and Prince Charles was crowned in Edinburgh. Leading his motley army southward, Prince Charles entered England, advancing into the Midlands before being compelled to withdraw. George II, with his usual resolution and courage, participated actively in organizing military resistance. In April, 1746, the Highlanders were crushed at the Battle of Culloden by a force of redcoats led by the king’s favorite son, the duke of Cumberland. Prince Charles was compelled to flee to France and eventually to Rome, where he died a lonely exile in 1788. The result of the Forty-five, as it was called, was to rally the English behind their German-born king.

Prior to 1744, British efforts in the War of the Austrian Succession had been as allies of Austria and Hanover against France. In 1744, Great Britain and France declared war upon each other and the conflict was extended to the colonies. By the end of the war, British seapower had gained control of the seas, but the ground warfare on the Continent favored the French. All parties were ready for peace, which was signed in 1748. The War of the Austrian Succession was indecisive. Another more intensive struggle was likely between Austria and Prussia for supremacy in Europe and Great Britain and France for supremacy in the colonial arena. Hanover continued as a hostage to the fortunes of European conflict.

The last two decades of the reign of George II were marked by population increase, economic growth, and colonial expansion. For a time political controversy declined. Frederick, prince of Wales, died in 1751, leaving the opposition without a rallying point. The duke of Newcastle and his brother, Henry Pelham, provided capable parliamentary leadership and adopted “broad-bottom” policies that won widespread support. In 1754, the period of peace and progress ended: War broke out with France in North America and Henry Pelham died. “Now I shall have no more peace,” George II commented. He was right.

In 1756, the war with France in America, known to Americans as the French and Indian War (1754-1763), was absorbed into a general European conflict called the Seven Years’ War (1756-1763). France, Austria, and Russia joined against Frederick the Great of Prussia, who fought valiantly to stave off defeat. George II, concerned as always for the security of Hanover, came to the aid of Prussia. As usual, Great Britain got off to a bad start, which precipitated a political crisis at home. William Pitt, now at the peak of his power, attacked the mismanagement of the war and made it impossible for Newcastle to govern. When Newcastle resigned in 1756, George II was compelled to accept Pitt as leader of the ministry, even though Pitt had been a constant critic of the king’s preoccupation with Hanover. Newcastle, as leader of the Whigs, was able to block Pitt. Eventually reason prevailed and, in 1757, a coalition government was formed in which Pitt managed the war and Newcastle managed Parliament and the finances. George II had lost his control of ministries, for the Pitt-Newcastle ministry rested upon the support of Parliament and public opinion.

George II had the good fortune to live long enough to preside over the most successful war in British history. Pitt was a superb war leader, and news of victories flowed into Great Britain in a steady stream. The French were driven out of North America, the French West Indian islands were captured, and the British East India Company defeated the French in India, gaining the great province of Bengal in the process. Despite his previous strictures against continental involvements, Pitt supported Frederick the Great of Prussia with money and sent an army to defend Hanover. The British navy swept the seas, and when Spain came to the aid of France in 1761, the British captured Florida, Cuba, and Manila.

By that time, King George II was no more. On October 25, 1760, shortly before his seventy-seventh birthday, the king finished his morning chocolate and fell over dead. The prince of Wales was proclaimed King George III, and a new era in British history began.

Significance

The long reign of King George II established firmly the process by which Crown and Parliament worked together in the “mixed and balanced constitution” of eighteenth century Great Britain. Despite his attempts to assert himself, George II accepted the reality that government must be exercised by ministers who had the support of Parliament. Normally the king could guarantee such support, for the influence that the Crown exercised through patronage, honors, and other benefits gave ministers a core of loyal supporters, and the independent members were inclined to give the king and his ministers the benefit of the doubt. At times of political crisis, as in 1742, 1746, and 1757, the king would have to yield. George II did not accept defeat gracefully, but he did so nevertheless. The ministers continued the practice of meeting apart from the king, and the cabinet became the place where the main issues were discussed and decided. When George II died, cabinet government was well established, and the long career of Walpole demonstrated the advantages of one recognized leader—a prime minister.

The main importance of the reign lay outside the realm of government: in the growth of the economy, imperial expansion, and remarkable achievements in philosophy, science, literature, theater, and the arts. Apart from his love of music and support of George Frideric Handel, George II had little direct effect in these areas, but the provision of a government which provided both stability and freedom was undoubtedly an important factor in the other developments of the Georgian age.

Bibliography

Black, Jeremy, ed. British Politics and Society from Walpole to Pitt, 1742-1789. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1990. Eight essays explore the history of the period, including the position of parliament, the British empire, the church, popular political movements, Scotland, and Ireland.

Hervey, John. Some Materials Towards the Memoirs of the Reign of King George II. 3 vols. Edited by Romney Sedgwick. Reprint. New York: AMS Press, 1970. Fascinating court memoirs also available in an abridged edition by Peter Quennell.

Marples, Morris. Poor Fred and the Butcher: The Sons of George II. London: Michael Joseph, 1970. Dual biography of Frederick, prince of Wales, and the duke of Cumberland.

Plumb, J. H. The First Four Georges. Boston: Little, Brown, 1975. Interesting, well-written chapters on the Hanover monarchs by the outstanding authority on the period. Profusely illustrated.

‗‗‗‗‗‗‗. Sir Robert Walpole: The King’s Minister. London: Cresset Press, 1960. The second volume of Plumb’s masterful biography takes the story to 1734.

Quennell, Peter. Caroline of England: An Augustan Portrait. New York: Viking Press, 1940. A delightful and fascinating biography with much about George II.

Trench, Charles Chenevix. George II. London: Allen Lane, 1973. A good scholarly biography of George II is lacking, but this work provides acceptable coverage and is written in an interesting style.

Van der Kiste, John. King George II and Queen Caroline. Stroud, England: Sutton, 1997. Biography of the royal couple explores their relationship with their sons and the governance of their country. Van der Kiste describes how George II delegated political business to Walpole and Pitt, and how Caroline worked with Walpole to rule Great Britain.

Williams, Basil. The Whig Supremacy, 1714-1760. 2d ed. Revised by C. H. Stuart. Oxford, England: Clarendon Press, 1962. A good general overview of the period.