Hassan II
Hassan II (1929-1999) was the King of Morocco, reigning from 1961 until his death in 1999. He was born into the Alaouite dynasty, which traces its lineage to the Prophet Muhammad, and his father, King Mohammed V, played a crucial role in Morocco's struggle for independence from French colonial rule. Following his coronation at the age of 31, Hassan II established Morocco's first constitution in 1962, which included civil liberties and democratic elements, though it also centralized power in the monarchy.
Throughout his rule, Hassan faced numerous challenges, including political dissent, economic inequality, and threats to his life, resulting in political repression and the suppression of opposition. Despite these issues, he also allowed some political competition and fostered economic growth. A significant aspect of his legacy includes the "Green March," which asserted Moroccan claims over Western Sahara, and efforts to position Morocco as a diplomatic bridge between the West and the Arab world, notably in the Arab-Israeli conflict.
Hassan II's rule was marked by a blend of coercive tactics and strategic political openings, and he left behind a mixed legacy of modernization and repression. His death prompted a large outpouring of public grief, and he was succeeded by his son, Mohammed VI, who promised to build upon his father's policies while pursuing further reforms.
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Hassan II
King of Morocco (r. 1961-1999)
- Born: July 9, 1929
- Birthplace: Rabat, Morocco
- Died: July 23, 1999
- Place of death: Rabat, Morocco
Hassan II ruled Morocco for thirty-eight years, placing an indelible stamp on the modern history of the country. He oversaw gradual economic and political reforms and survived the ideological battles that toppled many other monarchies across the region. In foreign policy, Hassan brought Morocco into a close alliance with the West and served as an intermediary between Israel and other Arab states.
Early Life
Hassan (hah-SAHN), the oldest son of Sultan Sidi Mohammad ibn Youssef (Yusuf), was born the successor to the dynasty that has ruled the region of Morocco for three hundred years. The Alaouite family traces its lineage to the Prophet Muhammad, imbuing the clan with a religious legitimacy that has served as an essential element of its rule.
At the time of Hassan’s birth, most of Morocco was a protectorate of France. The young prince grew up in the volatile period of World War II and the postwar struggle for Moroccan independence. He went to secondary school at the Imperial College in Rabat and later earned a law degree from the University of Bordeaux. Throughout this period, the prince’s father was the symbol of national unity and independence, which put his father in frequent conflict with the French colonialists. The sultan was sent into exile by the French in 1953, only to return to Morocco in 1955 and lead the country into eventual independence in 1956.
In the first years of independence, the prince worked closely with his father (now King Mohammed V) to institutionalize the new state and fend off challenges from the secular left, Islamists, and ethnic Berber separatists. He served as commander in chief of the army and in 1960 was named prime minister.
Hassan, who was called Prince Mowlay before his kingship, was crowned Hassan II on February 26, 1961, following the unexpected death of his father from a heart attack. Hassan was just thirty-one years old and, in the West had the reputation of a free-spirited playboy. It was uncertain at the time if the young king had the fortitude and political skills necessary to survive the turbulence of Moroccan and Middle Eastern politics.
Life’s Work
One of King Hassan’s initial achievements was to write the first constitution for Morocco in 1962. This foundation for the Moroccan state established some civil liberties and democratic features such as freedom of the press, the right to form political parties, freedom of religion, universal suffrage, and an elected legislature. Emblematic of Hassan’s rule, however, the constitution also gave the king the power to choose the prime minister and dissolve parliament. Moreover, criticism of the royal palace was forbidden, and final legislative and executive power resided with the king. Drawing on the Alaoui’s lineage, the constitution also codified the king’s position as the Emir al-Muminin (Commander of the Faithful), or the ultimate religious authority for the state.
Over the years Hassan faced many challenges to his authority and threats to the survival of the monarchy. In 1965, following student riots and fractious ideological battles, he dissolved parliament and ruled by decree for five years. In 1971, he survived the first of many assassination attempts. During Hassan’s forty-second birthday celebration, mutinous soldiers burst into the royal seaside compound. The king survived by hiding in a bathroom, only to emerge and face down a rebel soldier by reciting a verse from the Qur՚ān. In another coup attempt a year later, Hassan eluded an attack by rebel air force pilots by landing his plane and radioing “hold your fire, the tyrant is dead!” Moroccans attributed the king’s longevity to baraka, meaning divinely blessed luck and charisma.
On one hand, King Hassan’s long rule was characterized by a combination of coercion, brute force, royal patronage, selective political openings, and personal political skill. Political opponents often suffered harassment, arrest, or torture at the hands of the state. Thousands of political prisoners languished in Moroccan prisons. Others, like prominent nationalist Mehdi Ben Barka in 1965, simply disappeared.
On the other hand, Hassan allowed competition among multiple political parties, and he allowed a relatively free press. The palace’s largesse gained it political support from key constituencies in the middle and upper classes, as did business-friendly economic policies. In the 1990’s, the king took additional incremental steps toward political liberalization by pulling back the heavy hand of the internal security system. When leftist parties won a majority of seats in the 1997 parliamentary elections, the king allowed them to form a government, even naming political adversary Abderrahmane Youssoufi as prime minister.
King Hassan was adept at tapping into political symbolism. As Commander of the Faithful, he oversaw the construction of thousands of mosques, including one of the world’s largest, the Hassan II Mosque in Casablanca. Most dramatically, he mobilized Moroccan nationalism in asserting sovereignty over the territory of Western Sahara. This region, a Spanish colony, was claimed by Morocco and Mauritania. In 1975, the king transported more than 350,000 civilians to the region to stage the so-called Green March. An armed occupation and Moroccan settlement of Western Sahara followed, triggering a war with guerrillas from the Polisario Front , who demanded the territory for the local Sahrawis. For years Algeria and Libya supported Polisario guerrillas against the Moroccan army. A cease-fire was reached in 1991, but a final resolution to the territorial dispute eluded Hassan in his lifetime.
In foreign policy, the king allied his country with the West, developing an especially close relationship with the United States. He envisioned Morocco as a diplomatic and cultural bridge between the West and the Arab world. The king was also a key player in the Arab-Israeli conflict, pushing both sides toward more peaceful relations. He helped establish communications between Israel and Egyptian president Anwar el-Sadat, which led to Sadat’s historic visit to Jerusalem in 1977. In 1986, Hassan met publicly with Israeli prime minister Shimon Peres, and in 1993 hosted Prime Minister Yitzhak Rabin in Morocco, in effect granting diplomatic recognition to the Jewish state. After a four-year battle with various medical problems, King Hassan died of a heart attack on July 23, 1999.
Significance
Analysts criticized the pace and depth of political and economic reform under Hassan. His mixed legacy includes the development of state institutions, political repression, a multiparty system, and the beginning of some liberalization. The economy grew under the king, but there remained high unemployment and a large gap between the rich and poor. However, for the all the problems, many Moroccans had known no other leader than Hassan. He died as a popular national symbol. Two million people lined the streets of Rabat for his funeral.
King Mohammed VI, Hassan’s eldest son, succeeded him to the throne. The young king shared the charisma and popular touch of his father and pledged to continue the policy directions of his father, while also pursuing further political liberalization and economic integration into the global economy.
Bibliography
Hassan II. The Challenge: The Memoirs of King Hassan II of Morocco. Translated by Anthony Rhodes. London: Macmillan, 1978. Like most memoirs, this one is self-serving and partial in its coverage, but it provides fascinating insights into Hassan’s personality and worldview.
Howe, Marvine. Morocco: The Islamist Awakening and Other Challenges. New York: Oxford University Press, 2005. Explores one of the most pressing issues facing Morocco under King Hassan II and his successor, Muhammad VI: the rising influence of Islamism. Written by a journalist with long experience in Morocco and the Middle East.
Maghraoui, Abdeslam M. “Depoliticization in Morocco.” In Islam and Democracy in the Middle East, edited by Larry Diamond, Marc F. Plattner, and Daniel Brumberg. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2003. Examines the vagaries of political liberalization in Morocco under King Hassan and his successor, with a particular emphasis on the role of religion in public life.
Munson, Henry, Jr. Religion and Power in Morocco. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1993. Investigates the institutionalization and use of religious authority by the Moroccan monarchy.
Waterbury, John. The Commander of the Faithful: The Moroccan Political Elite A Study in Segmented Politics. New York: Columbia University Press, 1970. A classic study of monarchical power and the nature of elite politics.
White, Gregory, Mark A. Tessler, and John P. Entelis. “Kingdom of Morocco.” In The Government and Politics of the Middle East and North Africa, edited by David E. Long and Bernard Reich. 4th ed. Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 2002. A succinct and informative overview of modern Moroccan history and government.
Zartman, I. William. The Political Economy of Morocco. New York: Praeger, 1987. An in-depth analysis of the intersection of politics and the economy in underpinning Hassan’s rule; written by one of the leading scholars of North Africa.