Indonesian War of Independence
The Indonesian War of Independence was a significant conflict that arose after Japan's occupation of Indonesia during World War II and culminated in the country's establishment as an independent nation. Following Japan's surrender in August 1945, local nationalist movements, led by figures such as Sukarno, declared Indonesia’s independence, which was met with resistance from the returning Dutch colonial authorities. The initial phase of conflict involved armed confrontations between nationalist groups and Dutch forces, which aimed to restore colonial control.
Throughout the struggle, various strategies were employed by both sides, including guerrilla warfare by nationalist forces and aggressive military actions by the Dutch. Key moments included the Linggajati Accord, which temporarily established a federal government, and subsequent Dutch military crackdowns known as Police Actions. Increasing international pressure and changing political dynamics ultimately forced the Dutch to negotiate the terms for withdrawal.
By the end of 1949, following years of fighting, the Dutch accepted the need for a political resolution, leading to the formal recognition of Indonesia's independence on August 17, 1950. The conflict not only shaped Indonesia's national identity but also highlighted broader themes of colonialism and self-determination in the post-war era.
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Indonesian War of Independence
At issue: Post-World War II Dutch authority in the Indonesian archipelago
Date: August 16, 1945-December 27, 1949
Location: The Dutch East Indies, primarily the islands of Java, Sumatra, and Bali
Combatants: Indonesian nationalists vs. British and Dutch
Principal commanders:Indonesian, Sukarno (1901–1970), Kartosuwirjo; Dutch, General Hubertus van Mook
Principal battles: Surabaya, Bali, Marga, First Dutch Police Action, Madiun, Second Dutch Police Action
Result: Dutch military withdrawal, the partition of New Guinea, and the creation of an independent Republic of Indonesia
Background
Dutch trading interests in the Indonesian archipelago date from the early 1600’s. Plantations, warehouses, and wharves were established throughout the area, and military forces, police, and civil administrators followed. By 1940, when Holland was occupied by Nazi Germany, the Dutch East Indies was its richest colonial possession. During World War II, the Dutch East Indies became a vital objective for Japan, which needed its rubber and oil, and the islands were occupied by Japanese troops in December, 1941. In mid-1944, the Japanese occupation forces created Pembla Tanah Air (PETA), or Defender of the Fatherland, an indigenous paramilitary force, to help combat an expected Allied invasion. PETA forces were trained and equipped until March, 1945, when the Japanese began to fear that these forces would lead an uprising. Aware that Japan’s military situation was rapidly deteriorating, PETA soldiers and nationalist leaders looked for an opportunity to free the country from both the Japanese and the Dutch.
Action
The announcement of Japan’s surrender in August, 1945, was quickly followed by Allied instructions to Japan’s forces throughout Southeast Asia to remain in place and maintain order. The Japanese were to contain any local nationalist movements. Japanese troops attempted to disarm PETA fighters, but many small units escaped with weapons and ammunition. At the same time, the nationalist political organization Pemuda, under its leader Sukarno, declared Indonesia an independent nation. The first Allied forces to reach the Dutch East Indies were British-led Indian troops who came ashore at Surabaya (September, 1945) and immediately encountered sporadic armed resistance from rebel PETA units.
Meanwhile, a skeletal Pemuda civil administration was forming. Allied policy called for a restoration of Dutch rule, so Japanese forces were pressured to curtail Pemuda activities. Together PETA and Pemuda activists launched simultaneous assaults on Japanese installations on the island of Bali (December 13, 1945) but were driven back to the jungles. A small Dutch force arrived in the country in March, 1946, and within two weeks, nationalist forces were clashing with Dutch troops, reinforced by released Dutch prisoners of war. Aggressive Dutch tactics, directed by General Hubertus van Mook, weakened the nationalists, who lost hundreds of activists and guerrillas in the fighting.
The Dutch use of force created popular support for Sukarno, and recruitment to nationalist guerrilla and paramilitary units increased rapidly. Nationalists established a unified command and decided on a strategy of attacking Dutch-held cities and inciting urban uprisings. However, a conventional firefight erupted on Bali at the village of Marga (November 20, 1946), leaving almost 100 nationalists dead. The defeat undermined the nationalists’ military strategy, and in December, they accepted the Linggajati Accord with the Dutch, which established a federal Indonesian government under the Dutch queen. Nationalist military policy then shifted to the low-intensity warfare endorsed by Kartosuwirjo and other guerrilla leaders, and Dutch officials recognized that the political agreement was not practicable. The Dutch unilaterally abrogated the accord by launching a Police Action, or military crackdown, against nationalist organizations (July 21, 1947). Sukarno and other leaders responded with a call to accelerate the armed resistance.
The Dutch, under pressure from the United States, agreed to a new cease-fire arrangement in December, 1947. In it, they recognized nationalist authority in some sections of the country, thus undermining the political appeal of continued armed struggle by nationalists. Hundreds of guerrillas voluntarily disarmed, and Sukarno adopted a new strategy emphasizing political mobilization rather than armed resistance. Communist-led guerrillas who opposed Sukarno’s new line led an insurrection at Madiun (September, 1948), but it was quelled and its leaders killed. Dutch authorities, fearing an expansion of the rebellion, arrested thousands of political activists, confining many in camps. A second bloody Police Action (December 19, 1948) against the remaining armed nationalists brought further pressure from the United States for a Dutch withdrawal.
With international opinion turning against them, Dutch political leaders decided to negotiate a resolution to the conflict. A diplomatic agreement concluded in May, 1949, provided a framework for the withdrawal of Dutch military forces. Nationalist leaders seized the opportunity, sending thousands of paramilitary fighters from their bases on Java to other islands including Bali, where the resistance organizations were unarmed. Clashes between Dutch troops and nationalist guerrillas, as well as revenge attacks against pro-Dutch police auxiliaries and ethnic Chinese who did business with the Dutch, continued throughout 1949. The financial and political strain of the Dutch presence in Indonesia forced them to negotiate again, and the Dutch finally concluded an agreement with Sukarno on December 27, 1949, for the rapid withdrawal of Dutch troops and a quick transition to political independence.
Aftermath
After more than four years of fighting, Dutch military forces and civil administrators withdrew from all but the eastern half of the island of New Guinea. The formation of the Republic of Indonesia, under President Sukarno, was declared on August 17, 1950.
Bibliography
Fassuer, C. The Politics of Colonial Exploitation: Java, the Dutch, and the Cultivation System. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1992.
McMahon, Robert J. Colonialism and Cold War: The United States and the Struggle for Indonesian Independence, 1945–1949. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1981.
Robinson, Geoffrey. The Dark Side of Paradise: Political Violence in Bali. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1995.