Kurdistan (geo-cultural region)

Kurdistan is a geo-cultural region in the Middle East that is the traditional homeland of an Indigenous people known as the Kurds. Despite not having their own country, the Kurds are one of the Middle East's largest ethnic groups. Kurdistan includes portions of Turkey, Iraq, Syria, and Iran and is home to an estimated 30 million Kurds as a whole. About 2 million additional Kurds are dispersed throughout Europe and other parts of the world. Although little is known about the Kurds' ethnic origins, it is believed that they have inhabited the Kurdistan region for thousands of years. The modern interpretation of Kurdistan's borders, however, was not firmly established until after World War I (1914–1918). Despite efforts by various nationalist groups to establish an independent Kurdish state, no such state has ever existed. Regardless, Kurdistan and its inhabitants continue to play an influential role in the Middle East's often complicated and unstable socio-political structure.

Brief History

Geographically, "Kurdistan" refers to a region of the Middle East that includes the Zagros mountain system and the eastern part of the Taurus mountain system. It is thought that Kurds have lived in this region for thousands of years. Many of the surviving records of early Mesopotamian empires make reference to mountainous tribes with names similar to Kurd. Among these are the Kardouchoi, who may have been an early ancestor of modern Kurds. Eventually, a series of petty Kurdish dynasties arose in various parts of the region. The most notable of these included the Shaddādids, who flourished between 951 and 1174 CE; Marwānids, who lived between 990 and 1096; the Ḥasanwayhids, who lived between about 961 and 1015; and the Annazids, who existed between about 990 and 1117.

Over time, Kurdistan was conquered by many different invaders, including the ancient Persians, the Hellenistic army of Alexander the Great, Muslim Arabs in the seventh century, Seljuk Turks in the eleventh century, the Mongols in the thirteenth century, and eventually the Persians again during the Middle Ages. In the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, Kurdistan gradually fell under the control of the Ottoman Empire. The Ottoman Turks remained in control of the region until their defeat during World War I. In the aftermath of the war, Kurdish nationalists attempted to establish an independent Kurdistani state. In his Fourteen Points declaration, US President Woodrow Wilson included a stipulation stating that the Kurds, as well as the other non-Turkish peoples formerly of the Ottoman Empire, were to be given the opportunity to develop autonomously. To that end, the Treaty of Sèvres, which would have made provisions for the establishment of independent Arab states in Kurdistan and several other regions, was signed in 1920. Because it was never ratified, however, the treaty did not go into effect. Eventually, the Treaty of Sèvres was replaced by the Treaty of Lausanne, which did not include any measures for making Kurdistan an official nation-state. As a result, Kurdistan's status remained that of a geo-cultural region spread across parts of four different countries.

Cultural Background

Most Kurds speak one of many different dialects of the Kurdish language. Many also speak the languages of the countries in which they live. In terms of religion, the majority of Kurds are Sunni Muslims, but adherence to other faiths, including Yazidism, Yarsanism, Zoroastrianism, and Christianity, is also common among some members of the Kurdish community.

Kurdistan boasts a longstanding cultural tradition that includes everything from literature to music, art, and sports. The most enduring aspect of Kurdish culture is its vast oral tradition, which is highlighted by adventurous epic poems known as lawj that frequently weave exciting tales of romance or warfare. As early as the seventh century CE, the Kurds also began to develop a literary tradition. Among the most well-known examples of classic Kurdish literature are a 1596 history of the Kurds dubbed the Sharafnama and a national epic called the Memozin that was penned by author Ahmed Khani in 1695. The Kurds also have a musical tradition of folk songs performed by musicians known as dengbej. Of the different types of folk songs played by the dengbej, mourning songs called stran are typically the most popular.

Folk art is another hallmark of traditional Kurdish culture. In particular, Kurdish artisans are known for making beautiful rugs and carpets adorned with various traditional patterns and motifs. Many of these rugs also feature special Kurdish symbols that reveal information about the people who made them and the methods they used. Other common Kurdish crafts include copper-working, leather-working, embroidery, and metal ornamentation. Kurds also commonly enjoy participating in a range of sports, including soccer, wrestling, hunting, camel- and horse-racing. The most popular traditional sport among Kurds is cirit, which is essentially a combination of horseback riding and javelin throwing.

Iraqi Kurds

The Kurds are Iraq's second-largest ethnic group, numbering about 37 million and accounting for about 17 to 20 percent of the nation's total population. Most of Iraq's Kurds live in Iraqi Kurdistan, an autonomous region in the northern part of the country led by the Kurdish Regional Government (KRG). As part of its effort to maintain the autonomy of Iraqi Kurdistan, the KRG operates a 160,000-person military force known as the Peshmerga.

The emergence of Iraqi Kurdistan played out over the course of many years. After being denied the opportunity to become part of an independent Kurdistan after World War I, Iraqi Kurds began a long campaign against Iraqi rule. After Iraq's 1958 revolution, several different Iraqi governments assured the Kurds that they would be granted autonomy, but none actually fulfilled this promise. The first major step forward in the Kurdish struggle for autonomy instead came with the establishment of a partial no-fly zone over parts of northern Iraq after the first Gulf War (1990–1991). The existence of this no-fly zone allowed the Kurds to consolidate power and strengthen their territorial claims. In 2005, shortly after Saddam Hussein's Ba'ath government was toppled by coalition forces, Kurdish leaders reached an agreement with the new Iraqi government that finally allowed for the establishment of an autonomous Iraqi Kurdistan.

In the years since its founding, Iraqi Kurdistan has faced many challenges. One of the worst was the threat posed to the region by the rise of the Islamic State (IS), a radical Islamic group also known as the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL or ISIS). In 2014, ISIS seized control of a significant portion of northern Iraq, leading Iraqi Kurdistan to send the Peshmerga to reclaim disputed lands. As part of that effort, the Peshmerga also successfully captured the disputed Iraqi city of Kirkuk. Since that time, Iraqi Kurdistan has continued to move toward the possibility of becoming an entirely independent state.

Turkish Kurds

In Turkey, Kurds account for about 20 percent of the overall population and live predominantly in the nation's southern and southeastern provinces. Many Kurds also live in Istanbul and western Turkey's other major cities. Relations between Kurds and the Turkish state have been strained for many years. Uprisings in the 1920s and 1930s led to the forced resettlement of many Kurds and the establishment of official bans on traditional Kurdish names and fashions. The Turkish state also placed restrictions on the use of the Kurdish language and ceased to recognize Kurdish as a legal ethnic identity, instead referring to Kurds only as Mountain Turks. Tensions between Kurds and the Turkish state further escalated when Kurdish nationalist leader Abdullah Ocalan founded the Kurdistan Workers' Party (PKK) in 1978. This political group demanded the establishment of an independent Kurdish state within Turkey and eventually launched an armed struggle in hopes of realizing that goal. While fighting continued for decades, the PKK switched from seeking independence to simply winning improved political and cultural autonomy in the 1990s. Peace talks between the PKK and the Turkish state led to a temporary ceasefire in 2012, but fighting resumed in 2015 after a deadly IS suicide bombing in the Kurdish town of Suruc. While the PKK began an offensive against IS in response, it also launched attacks against the Turkish state. This led the Turkish state to label the PKK as a terrorist group. Regardless, the PKK enjoyed considerable success in their efforts to prevent IS incursion into their territory. At the same time, the Turkish government began moving to resolve its problems with the PKK and extend greater rights and recognition to Turkish Kurds.

Syrian Kurds

Syrian Kurds represented about 7 to 10 percent of Syria's population before the nation descended into civil war in 2011. Until then, most Syrian Kurds lived in the cities of Aleppo and Damascus, as well as in three non-contiguous regions located around the towns of Kobane, Afrin, and Qamishli. Much like their Turkish counterparts, Syrian Kurds have long been the victims of persecution by the Syrian state. Since the 1960s, about 300,000 Kurds have been denied Syrian citizenship. In addition, the Syrian state had a long history of confiscating Kurdish land and using it to facilitate the settlement of Arabs. The Syrian state also frequently resorted to political suppression as a way of quieting Kurdish calls for autonomy.

When Syria erupted into civil war in 2011, the Kurds specifically refrained from siding with or against President Bashar al-Assad. After Syrian government forces moved out of Kurdish territory in mid-2012, a number of different Kurdish groups assumed control. Chief among these was the Democratic Unity Party (PYD). In early 2014, the PYD worked in conjunction with several smaller parties to form a democratic autonomous government based in Syria's three major Kurdish territories. Further, the PYD announced that it was seeking only to establish an autonomous administrative state within Syria and not the formation of an independent nation. The PYD also made it clear that any political resolution of Syria's civil war would have to include provisions designed to protect Kurdish rights and guarantee recognition of Kurdish autonomy.

When the PYD came to power, its military branch, the People's Protection Unit (YPG), began working with the Turkish PKK to fight against the IS. Although the YPG and PKK proved to be quite effective in their struggle against the IS, American support of their effort led to tensions between the United States and Turkey. The battle continued regardless, and in March 2016, Kurdish leaders announced that a large portion of northeastern Syria was formally under their control and would be governed as a separate autonomous region. However, Islamist insurgents and Turkish-backed rebels invaded Syria in 2024, seizing control of Aleppo. The invasion and subsequent fighting threatened the Kurds' independence.

Iranian Kurds

With a population of about 5–8 million people, the Kurds are Iran's third-largest ethnic group. Most of Iran's Kurds live along the Iraqi and Turkish borders in the provinces of Kurdistan, Kermanshah, Ilam, and Hamadan. Most of Iran's Kurds are Sunni Muslims, which means that they often find themselves in conflict with the Shiite government. Over the years, Iranian Kurds have been subjected to political discrimination and mistreatment. Because of the Iranian government's repressive policies and resistance to open media coverage, however, the plight of Iran's Kurds has not been as widely publicized as that of their ethnic brethren in other countries.

A number of different armed Kurdish separatist groups have operated in Iran over the years. The largest and most notable of these is the Kurdish Democratic Party of Iran. Another is the Party for a Free Life in Kurdistan (PJAK), a guerrilla group against which the Iranian government launched a deadly military campaign in 2011. Hundreds of Kurds, including some civilians, were killed in the attack. The Iranian government has also been known to aggressively target and even execute Kurdish activists. In light of such governmental persecution, many Iranian Kurds have fled to Iraq in search of safety. Because they fear the consequences of upsetting the Iranian government, however, Iraqi Kurds have largely been reluctant to support their Iranian counterparts' struggle beyond offering them shelter. While many Iranian Kurds hope to eventually achieve a greater degree of political autonomy, the government's strength and unwillingness to cooperate seemingly make their struggle less likely to succeed than those unfolding in other countries. Regardless, Kurdish forces continue to have occasional skirmishes with the Iranian army.

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