Montenegrin Wars of Independence
The Montenegrin Wars of Independence refer to a series of conflicts in the 19th century wherein Montenegro sought to assert its autonomy and independence from the Ottoman Empire. Historically, Montenegro enjoyed a degree of self-governance as a remote part of the Ottoman Empire, with a predominantly Slavic Orthodox population that identified as Serbian. The wars were ignited by the ambitions of Montenegro’s leaders, particularly Prince Danilo I, who aimed to expand territory and strengthen ties with other Slavic groups in the region, notably those in Herzegovina.
Key battles, such as the significant victory at the Battle of Grahovo in 1858, highlighted Montenegro's military capabilities and resolve against Ottoman forces. However, the conflicts were punctuated by political intrigue and shifting alliances, with Montenegro often relying on the support of major powers like France and Russia to bolster its claims of independence. The situation escalated into a larger regional conflict during the Balkan uprisings of the 1870s, where Montenegro, allied with Serbia, declared war on Turkey. This culminated in decisive Montenegrin victories and significant territorial gains.
Ultimately, the Montenegrin Wars culminated in the Treaty of Berlin in 1878, which recognized Montenegro as an independent state, thus marking a significant moment in the region's history and the decline of Ottoman influence in the Balkans. The wars were characterized by the aspirations for national identity and self-determination among the Slavic peoples of the region.
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Montenegrin Wars of Independence
At issue: Independence of Montenegro
Date: 1852–1878
Location: Western Balkans
Combatants: Montenegrins vs. Turks
Principal commanders:Montenegrin, Omar Latas Pasha, general (1806–1871), Mukhtar Pasha, general (1839–1919); Monarchist/Turkish, Mirko Petrovic, general (1820–1867), King Nicholas I (1841–1921)
Principal battles: Grahovo, Vucji Do, Zeta River, Bjelopavica Valley
Result: Montenegrin independence
Background
Montenegro, a remote part of the Ottoman Empire, enjoyed a long-standing autonomy. Its Slavic Orthodox population were really of Serbian nationality. Since the seventeenth century, the country was ruled by its prince bishop of the Njegos Dynasty. In 1852, Danilo I came to the throne, married, and secularized the crown.
Action
Border clashes between Montenegro and Turkey occurred frequently during the Ottoman period. Furthermore, the Turks regarded Montenegro a vassal state while the Montenegrins asserted their independence. On several occasions, Istanbul succeeded in forcing the Montenegrins to recognize their suzerainty, but the Montenegrins would just as quickly ignore the treaties. In 1853, the Turkish commander in the region, Omar Latas Pasha, began a long war hoping to put Montenegro under direct Ottoman control. Danilo sought to increase his territory at the expense of the Turks and strengthen his ties to the Serbs of Herzegovina, who also were battling the Turkish guard posts. In 1858, the Montenegrin army increased to 5,800. Led by the prince’s brother Mirko Petrovic, the army defeated the Ottomans at the major Battle of Grahovo (January 5, 1858). Danilo looked for support to the great powers, which sent a commission to fix a border for the small state. Traditionally Montenegro relied on Russia, which it regarded as the only other independent Slavic Orthodox country. However, because of St. Petersburg’s lack of interest in pushing his claims, Danilo turned to France. Although this irritated Russia, Austria, and even Serbia, after Grahovo, Danilo persuaded the powers to pressure Turkey to recognize Montenegrin independence and fix its borders. However, Danilo’s political rivals assassinated him in 1860.
Danilo’s nephew Nicholas, son of General Petrovic, returned from his studies in France and assumed the crown. The Turks renewed their attacks on Montenegro (May 22, 1862). Initially the Montenegrins held the Turkish forces off at Novo Selo, but Omar was able to counter in strength and approach the Montenegrin capital. Only intervention by the great powers prevented the complete destruction of the state. The war brought large casualties on both sides—3,500 for the Montenegrins and more than 8,000 for the Turks. Nicholas accepted the Turkish offers for peace, which included recognition of Ottoman suzerainty. However, Nicholas did not honor this treaty and began almost immediately to prepare for a new battle. Skirmishes between the two states continued but neither side won a decisive victory until the general Balkan uprising of 1875.
Throughout the 1860’s and early 1870’s, Turkey was beset with revolts from all of its Christian provinces and could not devote much attention to the Montenegrins. In 1875, a major uprising occurred among the Serbs in Bosnia-Herzegovina. The troubles spread to Serbia, Bulgaria, and Montenegro. In June, 1876, Serbia and Montenegro, linked by a mutual defense treaty, declared war on Turkey. The Serbs lost, but led by King Nicholas himself, the Montenegrin army defeated the Turks at Fundina, Trijebaca, Medun, Spuz, and more than two dozen smaller skirmishes (1876). The army also won two decisive victories at Vucji Do (July 18, 1876), on the Zeta River (1876), and at the Bjelopavica Valley (1876). At Vucji Do, where Mukhtar Pasha commanded the Ottomans, the Turkish casualties mounted to more than 38,000, including two pashas, while the Montenegrins suffered less than 2,000 casualties. Podgorica (the modern capital), Nicksic, Ulcinj, Bar, and other towns and villages were added to Montenegro’s borders and the size of the country doubled.
Aftermath
The great powers resolved the Balkan problem in the Treaty of Berlin (1878), which granted Montenegro—along with Serbia and Romania—complete independence from Turkey.
Bibliography
McDowell, Ian. The “Montenegrin” Revolver. Melbourne: Chadstone Computing, 1991.
Pavlovich, Paul. The Serbians: The Story of a People. Toronto: Serbian Heritage Books, 1988.
Petrovich, Michael Boro. A History of Modern Serbia, 1804–1918. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1976.