Turkey

Full name of country: Republic of Turkey (Republic of Türkiye)

Region: Middle East

Official language: Turkish

Population: 84,119,531 (2024 est.)

Nationality: Turk(s) (noun), Turkish (adjective)

Land area: 769,632 sq km (297,156 sq miles)

Water area: 13,930 sq km (5,378 sq miles)

Capital: Ankara

National anthem: "Istiklal Marsi" (Independence March), by Mehmet Akif Ersoy/Zeki Ungor

National holiday: Republic Day, October 29 (1923)

Population growth: 0.61% (2024 est.)

Time zone: UTC+2

Flag: The Turkish flag is all red with a white crescent moon to the left of the flag’s center. The moon has a white, five-pointed star centered just outside of the crescent’s opening.

Motto: “Yurtta Sulh, Cihanda Sulh” (Peace at Home, Peace in the World)

Independence: October 29, 1923 (successor state to the Ottoman Empire)

Government type: presidential republic

Suffrage: 18 years of age; universal

Legal system: civil law system based on various European legal systems notably the Swiss civil code

The Republic of Turkey lies between Europe and the Middle East. Though it has only been a nation since 1923, its territory has been home to various civilizations dating back thousands of years and was the political center of both the Byzantine and Ottoman empires. Under the leadership of Mustafa Kemal (Atatürk), modern Turkey was born as a westward-looking and secular republic. Turkey continues to seek full-fledged membership in the European Union. If successful, it will be the first country with a largely Islamic population to have gained entry.

Note: unless otherwise indicated, statistical data in this article is sourced from the CIA World Factbook, as cited in the bibliography.

People and Culture

Population: The majority of Turkish residents live on the Asian side, which comprises the majority of the country's territory. The most densely-populated areas are along the coasts. In 2021, Turkey's United Nations Human Development Index rank was 45 out of 193 countries and territories. The life expectancy at birth is 74.4 for men and 79.2 for women (2024 estimate).

According to 2016 estimates, between 70 and 75 percent of the population identify as Turkish, though ethnic Turks are thought to actually constitute a lesser and uncertain proportion, perhaps as little as 25 percent. Kurds make up the largest minority, at an estimated 19 percent of the population. There are also small groups of Arabs, Armenians, Greeks, and Jews as well as various ethnic groups from the Caucasus.

Turkish is the official language of the population. It belongs to the Altaic language family, which originated in Central Asia. Like many aspects of Turkish life, the Turkish language was reformed during the early days of the republic. The Arabic alphabet was exchanged for a modified Latin alphabet, and many non-Turkish words were purged. Such reforms had wide-ranging effects, including a rupture with the language of the Ottoman Empire and the script of the Koran.

Kurdish and Arabic are the second and third most commonly spoken languages. Armenians and Greeks speak their own languages respectively, while many Jews in Turkey speak a medieval Spanish derivative called Ladino.

Religious affiliation makes for an equally complex picture. Most Turks are Sunni Muslims, as are roughly two-thirds of Kurds. The remainder of the Kurds and nearly all Muslim Arabs belong to the persecuted Alevi sect of Shia Islam. In addition, some Sunni Muslims practice a mystical form of the religion called Sufism. A very small percentage identify as Christians or as Jews. Syrian Orthodox Christians, who are ethnically Arab, comprise the largest Christian community. Ethnic Greeks and Armenians tend to belong to their respective branches of the Orthodox faith.

Though Turkey is in the main a conservative country, it is considered a bastion of moderate Islam. Nevertheless, there are still frequent tensions between the secular government and those who want religion to have a greater role in public life.

In about half a century, the population of Turkey went from predominantly rural to predominantly urban. More than 77.5 percent of the Turkish population lived in cities and towns in 2023. Istanbul is the largest urban center and accounts for about 20 percent of the total population, with 15.848 million people. Ankara, the capital, had a population of 5.397 million; İzmir 3.088 million; Bursa 2.086 million; and Adana 1.836 million (2023 estimates).

Indigenous People: Some of the oldest civilizations in the world were established in Asia Minor. The oldest known groups date back nine thousand years, to Neolithic times. Waves of different groups followed, from the Hittites and Phrygians to the Greeks and Romans. Ethnic Turks first arrived from the Central Asian steppe in the eleventh century, bringing Islam with them.

Several of the minorities present in Turkey once had much larger populations. Both the Greeks and the Armenians exemplify this trend, and both populations underwent forced relocations during the early twentieth century. Many Greeks moved to Greece following Turkey's war for independence, and many Armenians left eastern Turkey as the Ottoman Empire was dissolving. The Armenians, and many foreign countries and human rights groups, maintain that hundreds of thousands of their people perished from starvation, disease and outright slaughter during the forced removals, and have repeatedly sought to have these deaths recognized as genocide. The Turkish government denies that genocide was committed.

One of the most persistent sources of conflict in modern Turkey has been between ethnic Kurds, who have an ancient history in the southeastern part of the country, and the Turkish majority. With the founding of the republic, there was an attempt to downplay the ethnic and cultural differences of the Kurds and other ethnic minorities. The banning of their political parties and language from the public sphere, combined with the relative lack of development in their region, caused great resentment.

In 1984, the Kurdistan Workers' Party (PKK) began a terrorist campaign intended to create an independent Kurdistan. Warfare between the Turkish military and Kurdish guerillas continued intermittently through most of the 1990s. The leader of the PKK was captured in 1998, and a truce was declared in 2000. Subsequent cease-fire agreements buckled as ethnic and regional tensions rose with the Syrian civil war in the region, and by 2015 open violence between Turkish and Kurdish forces was again widespread.

Education: Public education in Turkey consists of five divisions ranging from preschool to university. Only primary and middle school are compulsory. Students must pass a competitive national exam to gain entrance into public high schools and universities. High schools are divided into lyceums, which offer a general education, and vocational schools.

There are more than one hundred state universities as well as numerous institutes and private universities for higher education. Some of the most prestigious include the University of Istanbul, and the Middle East Technical University and Bilkent University in Ankara.

In 2019, approximately 96.7 percent of residents age fifteen and older were literate. The male literacy rate in 2019 was 99.1 percent as opposed to 94.4 percent for females, since it is more common for girls to leave school early.

Health Care: The Ministry of Health is responsible for the country's health program, which extends free medical services to the population in government-run hospitals. Where it is available, service is generally adequate. However, care tends to be concentrated in cities and towns. Private clinics and hospitals attract wealthier citizens, as well as doctors and nurses seeking higher salaries.

Food: Turkey has a varied cuisine which is widely considered to be among the best in the world. It relies on fresh vegetables, pulses, yogurt, olives, and olive oil for many of its dishes. Lamb, cooked over coals or on an electric spit, is the favored meat, though fish is also prevalent.

Tea, coffee, ayran (made of yogurt), and raki (a clear, anise-flavored liqueur) are all popular drinks. Turkish desserts which are known internationally include baklava, helva, and lokum.

Arts & Entertainment: Many of the richest cultural expressions in Turkey derive from Ottoman times, when massive architectural projects were undertaken. These buildings are often decorated with intricately detailed tiles, representing one of the foremost arts of the period.

Traditional carpet-making is still practiced in Turkey, and carpets and kilims (flat-woven carpets) are made with a variety of methods and patterns. The more valuable carpets are made by hand with traditional dyes and materials. Carpets and kilims are now the most widespread visual art in the country.

Twentieth century Turkish literature offered several names of international stature, when the novelist Yasar Kemal and the poet Nazim Hikmet earned prominent reputations. Orhan Pamuk is Turkey's most famous contemporary novelist, both in his own country and abroad.

Turkish people follow their national football (soccer) teams fervently. Popular teams include Fenerbahce, Besiktas, and Galatasaray. Traditional oil wrestling, which is the occasion for an annual festival in western Turkey, is also a respected sport.

Holidays: Secular holidays in Turkey include Ataturk Commemoration Day (May 19), Victory Day (August 30), celebrating victory in the Turkish war of independence, and Republic Day (October 29). Seker Bayram, which concludes the holy fasting month of Ramadan, and Kurban Bayram, when animals are sacrificed and alms are given to the poor, are two of the most widely celebrated Islamic holidays.

Environment and Geography

Topography: Only a small portion of Turkey's land mass, called Thrace, lies in Europe. The Asian side is separated from Europe by the Bosporus Strait, the Sea of Marmara and the Dardanelles, forming a waterway that links the Black Sea and the Aegean.

Turkey is divided into seven natural regions: the Pontus and Taurus mountain ranges, the central Anatolian Plateau, the eastern highlands, the Arabian Platform, and the Black Sea, Aegean and Mediterranean regions. The coastlines along the three major seas account for three-quarters of Turkey's border.

The Pontus and the Taurus are the most significant mountain ranges, and they provide substantial barriers between the seas and the inner plateau. The Pontus range runs parallel to the Black Sea and gains in elevation along its eastern portion. The Taurus generally parallel the Mediterranean until the coast turns south along the Arabian Platform. These two mountain ranges meet in Eastern Anatolia, forming the Anti-Taurus. It is here that Turkey's highest peak, Mount Ararat, rises to an elevation of 5,173 meters (16,854 feet).

Of the many rivers in Turkey, three of the most important flow from the Anti-Taurus range: the Tigris, the Euphrates, and the Aras. Other rivers include the Gediz and the Buyukmenderes, which empty into the Aegean; the Ceyhan and Seyhan, which empty into the Mediterranean; and the Kizilirmak and the Sakarya, which empty into the Black Sea. The largest lake, Lake Van, is located in the east.

Turkish territory also includes several small islands off the Aegean coast.

Natural Resources: Copper, chromite, bauxite, iron, and manganese are a few of the mineral deposits found in Turkey. Though mining these minerals does not account for a substantial sector of the economy, it is vital for furnishing other sectors with raw materials.

There are also deposits of fossil fuels, including petroleum and natural gas. Coal is the most prevalent, most of which is lignite, a low-grade type which Turkey has largely substituted in favor of cleaner fuels. None of these deposits are adequate to meet domestic demand.

Water pollution from industrial run-off is one of Turkey's most pressing environmental problem. The number of tourists visiting Turkey has also had a negative impact on some ecosystems.

Plants & Animals: Vegetation on the arid Anatolian Plateau is characterized by a variety of grasses and small stands of trees, including oak and juniper. Shrubs and trees, such as oak and pine, are found along the Aegean and Mediterranean coasts. In contrast to the dense forests of the eastern Pontus Mountains, where valuable hardwood trees like walnut and maple are found, the typical Mediterranean growth is sparse.

Turkey is home to a variety of animal species, most of them Asian. Several of these animals are endangered, the Mediterranean monk seal critically. The heavy impact of human settlement and cultivation usually keeps larger animals confined to the less exploited regions. Some of these larger species include boar, deer, gazelle, wolf, fox, and bear.

Climate: The climate along the Mediterranean and Aegean coasts is subtropical. It is characterized by long, warm summers and wet but mild winters. A similar, though wetter, climate prevails along the Black Sea. On the arid central Anatolian Plateau, summers are hotter and drier and winters are much colder, giving this region a continental climate. Precipitation generally falls as snow. Winters in the eastern highlands are longer and harsher, and summers are hot and dry.

Turkey lies on an active seismic belt. Earthquakes range from slight tremors to devastating natural disasters. Aftershocks are common after moderate and intense earthquakes. One of the worst modern earthquakes, the İzmit earthquake, which killed an estimated 17,000 people, was centered in northwestern Turkey in 1999. Another devastating pair of earthquakes took place in Turkey in 2023. The so-called Turkey–Syria earthquake was centered in south-central Turkey, where many Syrian refugees resided. At least 56,000 people in Turkey and Syria were killed as a result of the earthquakes and their aftershocks.

Economy

Industry: According to 2016 estimates, about 26.6 percent of the Turkish labor force is engaged in industry, a sector that accounts for 28.3 percent of the gross domestic product (GDP) in 2023. Istanbul, Adana, Bursa, and İzmir are major manufacturing centers.

Iron, steel, and textiles lead the market; paper, cement and refined petroleum, mainly for domestic consumption, are also widely produced. The food-processing industry is dominated by sugar, olive oil, meat and other animal products, and fruit and vegetables.

The chemical industry enjoys the advantage of high-quality minerals exploited in the country. Caustic soda, chlorine, and sodium phosphates are just a few of its products.

Major dam-building projects are set to further increase Turkey's hydroelectric power production. Many of the power plants derive their energy from the Euphrates.

Turkey's per capita GDP was an estimated 70.594 million Btu/person in 2022. Inflation, which has long been a scourge of the economy, steadily declined in the early twenty-first century before domestic and global factors caused it to rise once again around 2016. The labor force was estimated at 35.071 million people in 2023, with unemployment at 9.41 percent. Germany, the United Kingdom, Iraq, Italy, and the United States are Turkey's major export markets.

Agriculture: Though subsistence agriculture declined during the latter half of the twentieth century, agriculture's importance to the economy cannot be underestimated. Not only does it engage a significant portion of the labor force (more than 18 percent) it also provides raw materials for the industrial sector and accounts for a significant percentage of exports. Moreover, unlike most countries, Turkey produces enough food to feed its population.

Generally, Turkey's land surface is highly cultivated. Cereals make up the major cash crop, but cotton, fruits and vegetables also have high yield. More specialized crops include silk, tobacco, and tea.

Animal husbandry is an integral part of the agricultural sector and particularly important in more mountainous regions. Sheep, raised for meat and for wool, are the most common livestock; cattle and goats are prevalent as well.

Tourism: Tourism is a vital economic sector, contributing 12.1 percent to Turkey's GDP in 2018. After relatively steady growth in the early twenty-first century, the number of international visitor arrivals dropped sharply in 2016, largely because of political turmoil and several terrorist attacks in the country. Tourist numbers began to rise in 2017, but were checked in 2020 by the global COVID-19 pandemic, which led to drastically reduced numbers of tourists around the world. By 2022, however, the number of visitors had returned to pre-pandemic totals, with 51.3 million visitors to Turkey that year, according to Turkey's Ministry of Culture and Tourism.

The country offers a plethora of cultural sights, from ancient Greek and Roman ruins and museums housing their artifacts to the Byzantine and Ottoman architecture of Istanbul. The Aegean and Mediterranean coastlines are particularly favored by tourists, and these areas offer the most developed infrastructure. Finally, Cappadoccia, in central Anatolia, is popular for both its lunar-like stone formations and underground cities and churches.

Government

The Republic of Turkey was officially founded in 1923. Since then the military has stepped in several times, including in 1980, because it considered the secular nature of the republic to be threatened. A new constitution, designed to defend Ataturk's principles and increase the powers of the central government, was approved by a national referendum in 1982. In 2016, elements of the military attempted another coup, which was quickly defeated by President Recep Tayyip Erdoğan and his supporters. Nevertheless, Erdoğan continued to face opposition and civil unrest, and his government clamped down on civil rights and other freedoms in response, arresting many dissidents, including journalists and academics, as alleged terrorists. The government also amended the constitution through a referendum in 2017.

As set out in the 1982 constitution, the executive branch is presided over by a president who is elected to a five-year term and must not maintain any ties with his political party. As head of state, the president is responsible for upholding the constitution, appointing the prime minister and the judges of the Constitutional Court, and presiding over both the Council of Ministers and National Security Council. In 2017, the constitutional referendum eliminated the post of the prime minister, beginning after the 2018 general election.

The Grand National Assembly is the unicameral legislative branch of the government. Its 600 deputies (increased from 550 following the 2017 constitutional referendum) are elected every four years. The president appoints the Council of Ministers (cabinet), which ensures that government policy is carried out. The president also has veto powers over legislation proposed by the National Assembly. According to the results of the 2017 constitutional referendum, the government transitioned from a parliamentary to a presidential system in 2018; the decision was widely seen by international observers as part of an ongoing consolidation of power by Erdoğan.

The judicial system is overseen by the minister of justice and divided between judicial and administrative courts. A third court handles disputes which do not fit into these categories. The three highest courts are the Constitutional Court, the Court of Cassation, and the Council of State.

Turkey is divided into eighty-one provinces which are in turn divided into districts and sub-districts. A governor, appointed by the Council of Ministers and approved by the president, presides over each province.

Political parties include the Democratic Party (DP), Democratic Left Party (DSP), Felicity Party (SP), Grand Unity Party (BBP), Justice and Development Party (AKP), Nationalist Movement Party (MHP), Patriotic Party (VP), People's Democratic Party (HDP), Republican People's Party (CHP), and the True Path Party (DYP).

In 2022, Erdoğan's government requested that the United Nations and other global organizations refer to the country as Türkiye, the Turkish spelling of the country, instead of the widely used English spelling of Turkey. Erdoğan's government previously began the process of adopting the name Türkiye the year prior, in which it requested world governments to favor the Turkish spelling of the country's name.

In 2023, Erdogan wins another five-year term as president, while his ruling alliance wins a parliamentary majority.

Interesting Facts

• "Yogurt" is one Turkish word which has been taken into the English language.
• Legend has it that the remains of Noah's Ark rest on Mount Ararat in eastern Turkey.
• Aya Sofya (Hagia Sophia) in Istanbul was first a church, then a mosque and is now a museum. It was once also the largest enclosed space in the world.
• The ruins of Troy are located in western Turkey.
• Turkey produces the majority of the world's hazelnuts.

Bibliography

Aydin-Düzgit, Senem, and Nathalie Tocci. Turkey and the European Union. Palgrave, 2015.

Sagona, Antonio G., and Paul E. Zimansky. Ancient Turkey. Routledge, 2015.

"Tourism Receipts and Expenditures." Ministry of Culture and Tourism, Republic of Türkiye, www.ktb.gov.tr/EN-249307/tourism-receipts-and-expenditures.html. Accessed 28 Nov. 2023.

"Turkey (Turkiye)." The World Factbook, Central Intelligence Agency, 29 Dec. 2024, www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/turkey-turkiye/. Accessed 8 Jan 2025.

Turkey, 2019 Annual Research: Key Highlights. World Travel & Tourism Council, 2019, www.wttc.org/-/media/files/reports/economic-impact-research/countries-2019/turkey2019.pdf. Accessed 29 June 2022.

"Türkiye." Human Development Reports, United Nations Development Programme, 13 March 2024, hdr.undp.org/data-center/specific-country-data#/countries/TUR. Accessed 8 Jan 2025.

“Turkiye.” The World Bank 2024, data.worldbank.org/country/turkey. Accessed 8 Jan 2025.

"Turkiye Country Profile." BBC News, 22 Aug. 2023, https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-17988453. Accessed 8 Jan 2025.