Muslim Civil War of 657-661
The Muslim Civil War of 657-661, also known as the First Fitna, was a significant conflict in early Islamic history, stemming from disputes over leadership following the assassination of the third caliph, ʿUthmān. ʿAlī ibn Abī ṭālib, a close relative of the Prophet Muḥammad, was elected as the fourth caliph, but his authority was challenged by various factions, including those led by prominent figures like ʿAbd Allāh ibn az-Zubayr and Muʿāwiyah I, the governor of Syria. The war saw notable engagements, such as the Battle of the Camel and the Battle of Ṣiffin, where the latter ended in a stalemate and led to a prolonged arbitration process.
The conflict highlighted divisions within the Muslim community, leading to the emergence of the Khawārij, a group that opposed ʿAlī's willingness to negotiate. Ultimately, ʿAlī was assassinated in 661, paving the way for Muʿāwiyah to establish the Umayyad dynasty. This period marked the beginning of sustained Sunni and Shīʿite divisions, which have continued to influence Islamic politics and society. The civil war not only reshaped leadership structures but also laid the groundwork for ongoing sectarian tensions within the Muslim world.
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Muslim Civil War of 657-661
At issue: Control of Muslim world
Date: 657-661
Location: Syria and Iraq
Combatants: Supporters of ʿAlī as caliph vs. supporters of Muʿāwiyah as caliph
Principal commanders: ʿAlī ibn Abī ṭālib (c. 600-661), Ḥasan (624-680), and Ḥusayn (626-680); Muʿāwiyah (c. 602-680), ʿAbd Allāh ibn az-Zubayr (624-692), and Yazīd (c. 645-683)
Principal battles: Ṣiffīn (657)
Result: The first Muslim Civil War temporarily delayed the Arab conquests, laid the foundations for the rise of Umayyad Dynasty (661-750), and created the perpetual rift between Sunni and Shiite Muslims.
Background
As the cousin, adopted son, and son-in-law of Muḥammad, ʿAlī ibn Abī ṭālib was the closest male relative of the Prophet, and thus a major contender for the office of caliph—successor to Muḥammad and ruler of the Muslims. Deemed too young to take the reins of power at the time of the Prophet’s death (632), ʿAlī was eventually elected caliph after the murder of the third caliph ʿUthmān in 656. His election was disputed by a number of opposition groups, leading to civil war.
Action
The first threat came from ʿAbd Allāh ibn az-Zubayr, a prominent early companion of Muḥammad who was viewed by many as a preferable candidate. Enlisting the support of the Prophet’s beloved widow ʿāʾishah, al-Zubayr assembled a small army of supporters in Arabia and marched to southern Iraq, hoping the Arabs would rally around the Prophet’s widow. However, the army in Iraq remained loyal to ʿAlī, who defeated the rebels in the Battle of the Camel (December, 656). Al-Zubayr was killed and ʿāʾishah exiled.
ʿAlī‘s problems did not end with this victory. Muʿāwiyah I, governor of Syria and commander of a strong Arab army, refused to swear an oath of allegiance to ʿAlī. The third caliph, ʿUthmān, Muʿāwiyah’s kinsman, had been assassinated, and as leader of the Umayyad clan Muʿāwiyah had a tribal responsibility to avenge the murder. Although ʿAlī was not directly implicated in the crime, some of his supporters were. Muʿāwiyah demanded that ʿAlī execute those involved in the plot before he would swear allegiance. Because punishing the assassins would undermine ʿAlī‘s power base, ʿAlī refused.
With negotiations deadlocked, both sides mobilized their armies, meeting at :iffin in Syria. However, neither side was willing to initiate hostilities against other Muslims. The armies therefore remained encamped opposite each other for three months. Battle was finally joined (August, 657), with ʿAlī‘s army initially gaining the upper hand. However, Muʿāwiyah’s soldiers rode into battle with pages from the Qur’an tied to their lances, calling for arbitration rather than the shedding of Muslim blood; a truce was thus declared.
ʿAlī agreed to arbitration, which continued for several years without any resolution. In the meantime, ʿAlī‘s position was undermined by the defection of Egypt and by increasing disillusionment among many of his adherents. This devout faction opposed arbitration with Muʿāwiyah, proclaiming that God was the only true arbitrator, and His decision would manifest itself through trial by combat. ʿAlī‘s willingness to compromise was seen as a sign of weakness and lack of faith. Those who withdrew their support became known as the Khawārij (“those who go out”); they remained a significant faction in Islam for centuries. In 661, a Khārijite murdered ʿAlī in the mosque at Kūfah.
Aftermath
ʿAlī‘s eldest son Ḥasan abandoned his claim to the caliphate in return for a large pension, leaving Muʿāwiyah free to ascend the throne and establish the Umayyad Dynasty at Damascus (661-750), which would lead Arab armies in a glorious period of conquests in North Africa, Spain, Iran, Anatolia, and parts of Central Asia. However, ʿAlī‘s second son, al-Ḥusayn, continued the struggle for the rights of the Prophet’s family to rule the empire. Upon the death of Muʿāwiyah in 680, Ḥusayn led a small band in rebellion against Muʿā wiyah’s son and successor Yazī d. The grandson of the Prophet and his followers were massacred at the Battle of Karbalāʾ (October 10, 680), scandalizing the Muslim world.
The first Muslim Civil War thus laid the basis for increasing fragmentation of the Islamic world along religious and political lines. Thereafter religious animosity and occasional warfare between Sunni and Shīʿite Muslims has remained a constant factor in Near Eastern military history.
Bibliography
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Petersen, E. Ali and Mu4awiya in Early Arabic Tradition. Copenhagen: Munksgaard, 1964.
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