Native American kinship and social organization

Tribes affected: Pantribal

Significance: Kinship relationships of various types have often formed the basis for political and social customs among native North Americans, including systems both much like and vastly different from those of Europeans

Like almost all cultures around the world, traditional American Indian cultures considered family relationships to be of paramount importance. Family relationships could be quite complex, as could the larger units of social organization. Therefore, a number of terms must be noted before American Indian social organization can be examined.

The largest societal group was the tribe, or nation. The precise number of tribes that have existed in North America is difficult to ascertain, since many were virtually exterminated by the European invaders, but they certainly numbered in the hundreds. Within some tribes was the moiety system where there were moieties, two subgroups within the tribe, often identified with particular animals. The next group was the clan, identified by close familial relationship. Finally there was the family group, extended or immediate. Among various Indian tribes, these groups were of varying importance.

The term “matrilineal” describes a society in which lineage, property, and various powers are passed down from mother to daughter. Patrilineal societies pass property and power from father to son. Patrilocal societies are those in which wives move into their husbands’ households; in matrilocal societies, men move into their wives’ households.

Finally, before further discussion of social organization, it should be noted that some traditions and customs have survived to the present day, whereas others have not. Almost all of those that have continued have been changed—some dramatically—by contact with the dominant European American culture. A prime example of such changes is the fact that most Indians today are at least nominally Christian, and all live within the American legal system. Polygamy used to be common among Indian tribes; today, at least legally, it is nonexistent. Tribal chiefs still exist, but they are ultimately under the control of the United States government. While there will be a brief discussion of modern conditions, all the following will be referred to in the past tense as an indication that times have changed since first contact between Europeans and Indians.

Lineage Patterns

Unlike European traditions, in which the male line is almost always considered predominant, there are a number of different traditions among Indians. Matrilineage was quite common. In many Indian cultures, the men spent most of their time outside, hunting and fishing or conducting warfare. The Native American women were in charge of the household and often tended crops. In some cases, such as certain Inuit groups, the men customarily lived in “men’s houses,” while the regular households were composed entirely of women and children.

In the Southwest cultural area, patrilineal descent was more common. Power and property were passed from father to son or from brother to brother. Wives often moved into their husbands’ households at marriage.

In a few cases there was bilateral lineage, and the naming and meaning of various relatives were complex indeed. Some tribes described fathers and fathers’ brothers by the same term, while differentiating between mothers and mothers’ sisters. Many variations took place. Unfortunately, since many of these customs had already been altered before they were seriously studied, the situations can be confusing.

Marriage within a clan was almost always forbidden. In some cases, the marriage had to be outside the moiety. In some cultures, notably the Subarctic tribes, marriage between cousins was encouraged, but incest was almost a universal taboo. While it is impossible to determine how ancient taboos originated, as they are usually assigned to the dictates of gods and spirits, these rules are remarkably logical in terms of modern genetics, which also discourages marriage between close relatives.

The one common custom among many Indian tribes that was totally abolished (at least legally) by U.S. law was polygamy. In many Indian cultures it was customary for a man, especially a man of power and influence, to have several wives. In some tribes, the number of wives a man married was an important sign of prestige.

Political Power

The common stereotype of the old chief sitting on his blanket and decreeing orders for the tribe was actually a very uncommon system of government among American Indians. There were some such chiefs, certainly; the Natchez of Alabama and Louisiana, for example, were ruled by a chief called the Great Sun, who was practically considered a god, was bowed to regardless of what he said, and was carried on a litter. Lesser men left his presence by walking backward. He was an absolute dictator.

Much more common, however, was a chief who was chosen by election, inherited his title but could be deposed by common opinion, or simply became chief because he proved himself in battle or had great wealth.

The Athapaskan peoples of the Subarctic, whose political system is probably the best understood because they were among the last Indians to be significantly influenced by white culture, elected their chief. This chief was far from dictatorial, and he was answerable to a village council. Chosen for his abilities, he was not necessarily an old man or significantly involved in religious ceremonies.

In many cases, religious leaders were also political leaders. The shamans among the Eskimos (Inuits) were probably the most powerful people in their tribes, but the political structure there was very loose, and occasionally great warriors achieved political power for a time. The Crow of the northwestern Plains had a chief with widespread power, but he became chief by agreement of the tribal members.

Gender Roles

Gender roles among American Indians, including the division of labor between Native American men and Native American women and the amounts of social and political power held by each, were first observed and studied by European men who applied their own strong cultural biases and perceptions to what they observed. As a consequence, gender roles in American Indian societies represent an area of study that has been subject to some debate and reinterpretation. As a general rule, men were hunters, warriors, and the (official) leaders, while women kept up the homes and often tended crops. Such division is not surprising for societies that were largely agrarian or were oriented toward hunting or fishing; preindustrial European societies functioned in much the same way.

Yet there were a number of exceptions. While men almost always were officially in charge, women sometimes held considerable power. Among the Hopi, for example, the individual households were the most important unit, and they were run by women. The household had a sacred bundle (fetish), which was owned by the oldest woman in the household and passed down from mother to daughter. The ceremonies involving these fetishes were held by the brother or son of this woman. The village chief was a man, and the chief generally was more a mediator than a ruler. This post was handed down from father to son. There was also a war chief, who had dictatorial powers in time of war but was chosen on the basis of his ability rather than lineage.

Social Organization

The degree of social organization within and among groups varied widely among tribes, from loosely knit groups of small families to huge nations with complex political structures.

Probably the most highly organized group of North American Indians were the Iroquois Confederacy. This was a league of six nations, the Mohawk, Seneca, Oneida, Tuscarora, Cayuga, and Onondaga. While these groups spoke a common language family and had many customs in common, their uniting was mainly a result of their warfare with the Algonquians, the other major group in New York and southeastern Quebec. The union was strengthened when the French, the first European settlers in the area, sided with the Algonquians. In the French and Indian War, the Iroquois Confederacy sided with the English.

The prehistoric traditions of the Iroquois are hard to determine, because they had very early contact with Europeans, and this contact was usually violent. It is known, however, that Iroquois society was probably the closest to a genuinely matriarchal society in North America.

Among the Iroquois, the women owned the property, arranged the marriages, and ruled the extended families, who lived in large numbers in longhouses—log cabins that could hold a great number of people of several generations. The original rulers were called sachems, but they were more mediators in tribal disagreements than rulers or dictators. Early European reports suggested that the real power was held by the women.

At the opposite extreme were the tribes of the Subarctic and Arctic, including the Athapaskans, Eskimos (Inuits), and Aleuts. These people had an extremely loose political structure. Where there were chiefs at all, they were generally either elected or simply assumed to be in charge because they had proved themselves. These people were not particularly warlike; they were often nomadic, moving in search of game.

Generally, the family unit was the most important social structure. The family unit varied from a small, nuclear family consisting of a husband, one or more wives, and any number of children, to large, extended families spanning several generations. A group of families constituted a clan, with common historical ancestors, often supposedly descended from a spirit or even an animal. Beyond the clan was the moiety. Paramount in most cases was the tribe, although even here there were great differences. In the Northeast, the tribe tended to be highly powerful, with a complex political structure. In the Northwest, small clans tended to be most powerful. In the Southwest, larger clans prevailed, and disputes among clans were settled by councils of chiefs.

Contemporary Conditions

As stated previously, American Indian societies today—although some traditions continue and others are being rediscovered and reintroduced—reflect the disruption and cultural adaptation brought about by centuries of contact with European-derived culture. In addition to the wide variety of traditional lifeways of American Indians, which continue to provide differences among tribes, the structures of contemporary Indian societies are strongly affected by where Indians live today. Broadly speaking, three categories may be delineated: those who live in urban areas or large towns, those who live on reservations, and those who live in very remote areas (as in the Subarctic).

American Indians in cities and towns, although still facing certain biases and prejudices, have generally acculturated to the dominant white culture. Moreover, because there has been considerable intermarriage, it is not always obvious that an individual is of Indian descent. Reservation Indians, on the other hand, are more likely to have preserved the old rituals, and reservation villages often still have chiefs and shamans. (It might be noted, however, that income from tourism has sometimes also played a part in the maintenance or reestablishment of certain ceremonies or customs.)

There are still some Indians, mostly in very remote areas, who have been little affected by white culture. Probably the most widespread group still holding to ancient customs in many ways are the Athapaskans of Alaska, the Yukon, and the Northwest Territories. They live in log cabins in tiny villages, usually with no more than eighty or ninety residents. White residents, or even visitors, are rare apart from a few government officials and schoolteachers. English is the working language, but the native languages are used for traditional ceremonies. Typically, at a major event such as a birth, marriage, or death, two ceremonies will be held. One is in the ancient language (complete with dances and songs) and is usually barred to whites; the other is a Christian ceremony similar to one that might be held in any city or town in North America.

Bibliography

Bandi, Hans-George. Eskimo Prehistory. College: University of Alaska Press, 1979. An archaeological study of early Eskimos, including illustrations, diagrams, and maps, discussing their culture from arrival upon the American continent.

Hamilton, Charles. Cry of the Thunderbird: The American Indian’s Own Story. New ed. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1972. A compilation of articles by American Indians about their culture, including memories of childhood, historical beginnings, and contemporary conditions.

Oswalt, Wendell H. This Land Was Theirs: A Study of North American Indians. 4th ed. Mountain View, Calif.: Mayfield, 1988. Description of representative tribes in various regions; includes photographs and maps showing tribal areas.

Spencer, Robert F., Jesse D. Jennings, et al. The Native Americans. 2d ed. New York: Harper & Row, 1977. An encyclopedic discussion of American Indian culture, from prehistory to contemporary times.

Viola, Herman J. After Columbus: The Smithsonian Chronicles of the American Indians. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1990. A history of North American Indian cultures, with a particular emphasis on the changes in those cultures as a result of European influence.