Peruvian Wars
The Peruvian Wars refer to a series of conflicts and political upheavals in Peru during the early to mid-19th century, primarily following the country's independence from Spanish colonial rule. During this period, Peru faced significant political instability characterized by frequent changes in government, regionalism, and ongoing tensions between conservative and liberal factions. The society was deeply stratified, and social inequalities prompted demands for "Indian rights" among indigenous peoples.
Key figures during this tumultuous time included General Andrés de Santa Cruz, who briefly united Peru and Bolivia in the Peruvian-Bolivian Confederation but faced opposition from both local factions and foreign powers, particularly Chile and Argentina. After Santa Cruz's defeat at the Battle of Yungay in 1839, the confederation dissolved, and Peru entered a prolonged period of civil war, with various generals vying for control. The aftermath of these conflicts left Peru struggling to achieve political stability and prosperity, while also impacting Bolivia and shifting regional dynamics favorably towards Chile. Despite subsequent attempts to rekindle a union between Peru and Bolivia, efforts were consistently thwarted, shaping the political landscape of the region for years to come.
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Peruvian Wars
At issue: Continuation of the Peruvian-Bolivian Confederation
Date: 1836–1845
Location: Peru and Bolivia
Combatants: Peru and Bolivia vs. Chile
Principal commanders:Peruvian and Bolivian, Grand Marshal Andrés de Santa Cruz (1792–1865); Chilean, General Manuel Bulnes Prieto (1799–1866)
Principal battle: Yungay
Result: The Peruvian-Bolivian Confederation was dissolved and Chilean domination of the Pacific coast of South America assured
Background
Peru during the colonial period was a highly stratified society based upon distinctions of race, gender, ancestry, and land ownership. After independence, native peoples demanded their “Indian rights” and began to contest their political and social inequality. Ambitious men, usually generals, used the discontent to further their political aspirations. Between 1821 and 1845, Peru averaged a change of government once a year. The constitution was rewritten six times. With the weakening of the central government in Lima, regionalism became dominant. Local landowners used their control of the servile masses to influence local government and ignored the national government.
Peru was divided by the liberal-versus-conservative struggles characteristic of Latin American nations during the nineteenth century. The Lima area was conservative, and the south, liberal. Conservatives supported the Catholic Church and were against foreign influence and in favor of a strong central government. Liberals were in favor of more regional power, free trade, and restrictions on the Church.
Action
After independence, Peru was ruled by a series of generals who had fought in the South American Wars of Independence, one of whom was Grand Marshal Andrés de Santa Cruz, a native Bolivian. In 1825, Simón Bolívar appointed Santa Cruz president of Peru. Forced out of Peru in 1827, Santa Cruz became president of Bolivia, serving from 1829 to 1839. He created a stable political, economic, and social order. After almost twenty-five years of chaos, Bolivia enjoyed a decade of peace.
His service in the liberation of Peru and his term as Peruvian president gave Santa Cruz an interest in Peru. In June, 1835, he created the Peruvian-Bolivian Confederation, consisting of North Peru, South Peru, and Bolivia. Argentina and Chile considered the confederation a threat. Chile feared that its plans to expand north into disputed territory and its commerce with Europe were threatened.
Not all Peruvians accepted Santa Cruz and the confederation. Many Peruvians were opposed to the division of Peru into two parts and did not want domination by Santa Cruz and Bolivia. Chile gave support to opposition factions in Peru and Bolivia, arming and transporting exiled Peruvians back to Peru. Chile also disguised its soldiers as Peruvian rebels and made constant incursions into Peru, seriously weakening the confederation government.
Although Santa Cruz won several battles, conditions deteriorated. In 1838, Chile sent its regular army, under command of General Manuel Bulnes Prieto, into Peru. Santa Cruz lost the Battle of Yungay on January 20, 1839. He was forced into exile, and the confederation was dissolved.
Agustín Gamarra, another general and onetime ally of Santa Cruz, assumed control of Peru. When he was killed in 1841 in a failed attempt to invade Bolivia, civil war erupted. Several generals fought each other until General Ramón Castillo took control in 1845, ending the civil wars and the Peruvian attempts to seize Bolivia.
Aftermath
The breakup of the Peruvian-Bolivian Confederation enabled Chile to dominate the Pacific coast of South America. Bolivia fell into chaos, and Peru struggled for decades to achieve stability and prosperity. However, the idea of a union between the two nations was not totally abandoned, and another unsuccessful attempt to unite Peru and Bolivia occurred thirty years later. Again, Chile broke up all efforts toward union.
Bibliography
Bushnell, David, and Neill Macaulay. The Emergence of Latin Americain the Nineteenth Century. 2d ed. New York: Oxford University Press, 1994.
Klaren, Peter F. Peru: Society and Nationhood in the Andes. New York: Oxford University Press, 2000.
Klein, Herbert S. Bolivia: The Evolution of a Multi-Ethnic Society. 2d ed. New York: Oxford University Press, 1992.