Bolivia

Full name of country: Plurinational State of Bolivia

Region: South America

Official language: Spanish, Quechua, Aymara, Guarani

Population: 12,311,974 (2024 est.)

Nationality: Bolivian(s) (noun), Bolivian (adjective)

Land area: 1,083,301 sq km (418,265 sq miles)

Water area: 15,280 sq km (5,900 sq miles)

Capital: La Paz (administrative capital); Sucre (constitutional capital)

National anthem: "Cancion Patriotica" (Patriotic Song), by Jose Ignacio De Sanjines/Leopoldo Benedetto Vincenti

National holiday: Independence Day, August 6, (1825)

Population growth: 1% (2024 est.)

Time zone: UTC –4

Flag: The Bolivian flag is characterized by three equal horizontal stripes of red (top), yellow (middle), and green (bottom), with the coat of arms emblazoned in the center of the yellow stripe. The red in the flag represents the blood lost in the country’s fight for independence, the yellow stands for the country’s mineral wealth, and the green reflects the country’s vegetation and fertility. In 2009, Bolivian president Evo Morales declared that the “Wiphala,” a square, multicolored flag traditionally representing the indigenous peoples of the central Andes (particularly the Andean, Quechua, and Aymara peoples), be flown alongside the national tricolor. The declaration proved controversial, as the country boasts more than thirty native cultures.

Motto: “Morir antes que esclavos vivir” (We’d rather die than live as slaves)

Independence: August 6, 1825 (from Spain)

Government type: presidential republic

Suffrage: 18 years of age, universal and compulsory

Legal system: civil law system with influences from Roman, Spanish, canon (religious), French, and indigenous law

Bolivia is a country in the middle of South America, bordered by Brazil, Paraguay, Argentina, Chile, and Peru. It declared independence in 1825 after centuries of Spanish rule. After a turbulent history of coups d’etat, serfdom, and poverty, the country now maintains a relatively stable democracy with universal suffrage, increased educational opportunities, and a rising standard of living.

Note: unless otherwise indicated, statistical data in this article is sourced from the CIA World Factbook, as cited in the bibliography.

People and Culture

Population: Bolivia has a very diverse population, and estimates on the size of various ethnic groups can vary widely depending on the categories provided and the wording of survey questions. For example, according to 2009 estimates, about 68 percent of the population is Mestizo, or of mixed White and American Indian ancestry—but that category was not included on the 2001 census, leading to significantly higher self-identification with other available options. The term "Mestizo" is also sometimes used interchangeably with "Cholo," and sometimes treated separately. The 2009 estimates reported by the CIA World Factbook noted 2 percent of the population as Cholo/Chola. According to those estimates, about 20 percent of the population is Indigenous, 5 percent is White, 1 percent is of African descent, 1 percent is of other ethnicity, and 3 percent is unspecified. However, 44 percent of survey respondents noted feeling some degree of Indigenous identity, mainly Quechua or Aymara heritage.

The 2009 Constitution of Bolivia established the nation’s official languages as Spanish as well as “all the languages of the rural native indigenous nations and peoples,” identifying thirty-six indigenous languages by name. Spanish is spoken by about 68.1 percent of the population; the most common other languages include Quechua (17.2 percent) and Aymara (10.5 percent) (2012 estimates).

The vast majority of Bolivians—65 percent according to 2023 estimates—are Roman Catholic. Most Quechuas and Aymaras are Catholic but retain many indigenous religious customs. Evangelical Christians (16.5 percent) are the next largest religious group, while Adventists (2.8 percent), the Church of Jesus Christ (1.2 percent), and other religions (4.8) also represented. Approximately 6.1 percent of the population claim no religion, while 1.7 percent specify atheism and 0.6 identify as agnostic (2023 estimates).

Bolivia has a growing urban population, accounting for 71.2 percent of the total population according to 2023 estimates. The largest cities are La Paz, the administrative capital, with 1.936 million people; Santa Cruz (1.82 million); Cochabamba (1.4 million); and Sucre, the constitutional capital (278,000) (2018 estimates). Much of the population is clustered in the western part of the country in the Altiplano region, a plain between two sections of the Andes mountains. Santa Cruz is the main population hub east of the Andes.

Bolivia ranked 120th out of 193 countries and territories on the 2022 UN Human Development Index, which measures quality-of-life indicators.

Indigenous People: The area of modern-day Bolivia has been inhabited for thousands of years. The Tihuanaco (or Tiwanaku) culture is believed to have flourished from about 600 to 1000 CE, when it became part of the Inca Empire. The excavated ruins of the city of Tihuanaco reveal a high degree of organization in government, architecture, and wealth.

Inca rule was based on the concept of the ayllu, or community, which organized local affairs and economy. When the Spanish arrived in the sixteenth century, the Indigenous population was decimated by disease, warfare, and enslavement.

The two main Indigenous ethnic groups remaining in modern times are the Quechua and the Aymara. The Quechua are descendants of colonizers sent by the Inca hundreds of years before the arrival of Christopher Columbus in the Americas. They live throughout Bolivia, but have historic roots in the Altiplano. The Aymara, believed to be descendants of the Tihuanaco, live primarily in the departments (administrative divisions) of La Paz and Oruro. Both groups are intermingled with other, smaller, ethnic groups.

Highland ethnic groups include the Urus, Qaraqaras, and Uamparas, who were part of Inca Empire. They retain their own customs and language but have adopted some Quechua characteristics. The Guarani are the largest lowland ethnic group. They live mainly in southeast Bolivia. Other lowland Indigenous peoples include the Chiquitanos, Moxos, Sirionós, Chanés, and Ayoreos.

Though serfdom was finally abolished in 1952, many Indigenous peoples are still exploited as cheap labor. Skin color and facial features are often used to determine one’s place in society and the workforce.

Education: The literacy rate in Bolivia was estimated at 92.5 percent in 2015. This represented a rapid increase over previous decades as a result of education reform. However, females still tend to lag behind males in education. Indigenous and rural citizens also face frequent obstacles to education access.

Bolivia has a number of both public and private universities. Admission to private universities is often easier due to the lack of funding to support public higher education.

Health Care: Bolivia has long struggled with health and development issues, which are exacerbated by poverty and educational challenges. Expenditure for health care in Bolivia was estimated at 7.9 percent of the country's gross domestic product (GDP) in 2020. Health care providers are scarce, with only 1.03 physicians per 1,000 people according to 2017 estimates.

Bolivia's infant mortality rate was estimated at 22.3 per 1,000 births in 2024. In 2020, the estimated maternal mortality rate was 161 deaths per 100,000 live births. While still high, this represented a notable decrease from previous years. Life expectancy was estimated to be an average of 71 years for males and 74 years for females in 2024.

Food: On the Altiplano, food tends to be spicy. Meats (often chicken or pork) with sauces and soups or stews are popular. Potatoes appear in many main dishes, and rice and pasta are popular. In the tropical lowlands, the food is not so spicy. The mainstays are plantains instead of potatoes and boiled maize in place of bread. Meat is often grilled.

Some typical Bolivian dishes include aji de lengua, spicy cow’s tongue; lechon al horno, roast pig, served on New Year’s Day; fritanga, spicy pork and egg stew; majao, a rice-and-meat dish served with fried egg, fried plantain and fried yucca (tapioca); canapés, cheese bread and yucca starch; pan dulce, a sweet bread served at Christmas; chuno phuti, frozen dried potato; escabeche, pickled vegetables; cicadas, coconut candies; leche asada, roasted milk; and helado de canela, cinnamon sorbet.

Arts & Entertainment: The most popular sport in Bolivia is football (soccer). Local leagues and informal games abound, and the national team has participated in World Cup competition. Famous soccer players include Marco Etcheverry, Ramiro Castillo, and Demetrio Angola.

Volleyball, basketball, chess, and card games are also popular. On Fridays (known as "Bachelor Fridays") men gather to play cacho, a dice game, or sapo, in which they try to shoot small metal game pieces into a frog-shaped goal.

Feria, or market, is a social occasion for the rural people. Cockfights are held on Fridays and Saturdays, and parties or parrilladas (informal barbecues) are frequent.

The Festival of the Holy Trinity, in the city of Trinidad in June, features a bullfight. During the Festival of Holy Cross in May, men perform tinkus (ritual dance-like fights). The gauchos of Tarija in southern Bolivia hold a rodeo in April. Annual reed boat races and swimming races are held at Lake Titicaca.

Many Bolivian painters have arisen since Melchor Pérez de Holguín founded the Potosi Indigenous School of Painting in the seventeenth century. Famous painters include Joaquín Carballo, Gaspar Miguel de Berrío, Nicolás de los Ecoz, Manuel Córdoba, Alejandro Mario Yllanes (an Aymaran miner), Roberto Mamani, Alfredo La Placa, Edgar Aldorado, and David Darío Antezana. María Nuñez del Prado was a well-known sculptor, and Mario Sarabia is a famous Bolivian ceramist.

Bolivia is also famous for its beautiful weavings. Each region has its own distinct designs and colors, some of them dating back to the Tihuanaco culture.

Well-known Bolivian writers include Bartolomé Arsáns Orsúa y Vela, Ricardo Jaimes Freyre, Renato Prada Oropeza, Domitila Barrios de Chungara, and Arturo von Vacano. Noted poets of Bolivia include Franz Tamayo, Adela Zamudio, Jaime Sáenz, Pedro Shimose, and Eduardo Mitre.

Theater groups in the country have included Teatro de los Andes, Teatro Duenda, and Zig Zag Teatro, all in La Paz; Teatro del Orgo, Santa Cruz; Kikinteatro, Cochabamba; La Rodilla del Telon; Ojo Morado (a children’s theater); and Quillacolla.

Traditional Bolivian music is played on the zampona (pan flute), quena (flute), or charango (similar to a ukulele).

Holidays: Independence Day (August 6) celebrates Bolivia’s 1825 independence from Spain. Other national holidays include La Paz Day (July 16), which celebrates the 1548 founding of the city; Mary’s Day (July 21); National Day (April 9), which commemorates the reestablishment of the National Revolutionary Movement in 1952; El Dia de los Muertos (The Day of the Dead), observed on November 1–2; and Día de las Ñatitas (Day of the Skulls), about a week later.

Many Inca holidays are also observed, often combined with Roman Catholic holidays. Alasitas, the Aymara festival for Ekeko, the god of abundance, is celebrated in January. May 27 is Heroínas de la Coronilla (Heroines of Coronilla), which commemorates the defense of Cochabamba by women during the war of independence.

Bolivians also celebrate numerous local holidays and festivals. Carnival occurs just before Lent; people wear costumes and plaster masks and dance la diablada (the devil’s dance) to the church, where they are blessed by a priest.

Environment and Geography

Topography: Bolivia is bounded by Brazil to the north and east, Paraguay to the southeast, Argentina to the south, and Chile and Peru to the west.

Bolivia has several climatic and topographical regions. In the west is the cold and dry Altiplano (mountain plateau), an area 800 by 130 kilometers (about 500 by 80 miles), between the snow-covered coastal Andes and eastern Andes (Cordillera Occidental and Cordillera Oriental).

The Yungas region consists of hills and valleys to the east of the Andes, with plenty of water and semitropical rain forests. The llanos, or plains, are semitropical lowlands of the Amazon River Basin, rich with grassland and rain forests, and always hot. The Chiquitos highlands in the southeast separate the llanos from the Chaco, the dry, semitropical plains that Bolivia shares with Paraguay.

The country’s highest point is Nevado Sajama, at 6,542 meters (21,463 feet). Its lowest point is Rio Paraguay, at an elevation of only 90 meters (295 feet).

The Guapore River rises in Brazil, where it is called the Itenez, and flows northwest, forming part of the border between Bolivia and Brazil. The river then empties in Brazil into the Mamore River, which rises in the Andes and flows through Bolivia into Brazil. The Guapore is known for its clear water.

The Pilcomayo is the main river in the southeast. Rising in Argentina, it flows through the Chaco, forming part of the Argentina-Bolivia-Paraguay border, and eventually empties into the Paraguay River.

The famous Lake Titicaca lies in the northwest corner of the Altiplano, half in Bolivia and half in Peru. It is the world’s highest navigable lake, at 3,821 meters (11,463 feet). The lake has an area of 8,300 square kilometers (3,205 square miles). Fishermen on the lake are known for their traditional boats made of totora reeds.

Natural Resources: Tin, natural gas, petroleum, zinc, tungsten, antimony, silver, iron, lead, gold, timber, and hydropower are Bolivia’s main natural resources. Tin mining used to be the primary industry, but natural gas has since replaced tin in importance.

Agricultural land clearing and the timber industry have contributed to deforestation; along with overgrazing and slash-and-burn agriculture, this has led to increased desertification and loss of biodiversity. Illegal hunting and replacement of local plants and animals with exotic species have also upset the ecological balance, especially in the fragile ecosystems of the Altiplano and the dry Andean forests.

To stem this tide of destruction, in 1992 Bolivia created the Sistema Nacional de Areas Protegidas (National System of Protected Areas), or SNAP.

Plants & Animals: Bolivia is one of the most biodiverse countries in the world. More than 20,000 species of seed-bearing plants can be found there, along with more than 1,200 species of fern, 1,500 species of liverwort, and at least 800 species of fungi. In addition, there are more than 350 species of mammals, 1,400 species of birds, 600 species of fish, 260 species of reptiles, and 200 species of amphibians. Bolivia ranks fourth in the world in the number of butterfly species.

Chili peppers, locoto peppers, sweet peppers, potatoes, peanuts, beans, manioc, and a variety of palms are believed to have originated in Bolivia. About three thousand medicinal plants are used by locals, including albahaca (basil), used to treat cardiovascular problems; una de gato (cat’s claw), used for several purposes; and Taikiji kawayu (horsetail), which has many uses, including treatment of wounds and uterine hemorrhage.

On the Altiplano live llama, alpaca, and vicuna. The cloud forests of the Andes are home to ocelots, collared peccaries, brown capuchin monkeys, nine-banded armadillos, brocket deer, and tapirs. Many of these animals are protected by the Tariquia Flora and Fauna National Reserve. The reserve also provides a safe home for many bird species, including Andean condors, whistling herons, Chilean flamingos, red shovelers, white-rumped hawks, osprey, great egrets, scaly-headed parrots, Andean pygmy owls, giant hummingbirds, spot-billed ground tyrants, toucans, and Bolivian military macaws.

In the northeast live river otters, capybaras, pink river dolphins, black and spectacled caiman, tapirs, gray and red brocket deer, silvery marmosets, pumas, jaguars, maned wolves, giant anteaters, spider and black howler monkeys, harpy eagles, storks, Amazonian umbrella birds, helmeted manakins, hoatzins, and more than twenty species of parrot.

The Amazon basin provides habitat for monkeys, pumas, jaguars, armadillos, and various reptiles, birds, and insects.

Endangered and threatened species include the short-tailed chinchilla, giant armadillo, spectacled bear, giant anteater, Andean mountain cat, and giant otter.

On the Altiplano grows ichu, a coarse grass. The rainforests are home to rubber trees, vanilla, sarsaparilla, saffron, and more than two thousand species of hardwood trees. In the Noel Kempff Mercado National Park are orchids, bromelias, palms, mahogany, cedar trees, and rubber trees. Cacti grow in the dry altitudes.

Climate: Although the climate varies widely across Bolivia’s topographical zones, it shows little seasonal change.

The Andes and Altiplano are dry and cool, with normal temperatures of 15 degrees to 20 degrees Celsius (59 degrees to 68 degrees Fahrenheit) during the day, dropping to around 5 degrees Celsius (41 degrees Fahrenheit) at night. Polar conditions sometimes occur in the Andes. Frost appears on the shores of Lake Titicaca most months.

Annual rainfall in the mountains varies from about 152 centimeters (60 inches) on the exposed heights to 64 centimeters (25 inches) in protected valleys. In the Yungas, the annual rainfall tends to be from 70 centimeters (27.5 inches) to 80 centimeters (31.5 inches), and the humidity is high.

The northern lowlands receive plenty of rain from northeast trade winds, and daytime highs average 30 degrees Celsius (86 degrees Fahrenheit) all year round. The central lowlands are wet October through April, dry May through September, and hot always, with an average temperature of 25 degrees Celsius (77 degrees Fahrenheit). The surazos, cold southern winds, sometimes lower the temperatures by several degrees.

The Chaco has hot and dry conditions, with rain and humidity only from January through March.

Economy

Bolivia has historically struggled with widespread poverty and other economic problems despite its rich natural resources. Periods of strong growth in the early twenty-first century aided fiscal stability, but the nation continues to face sharp income inequality and rampant corruption. The unemployment rate in Bolivia was estimated at 3.08 percent of the labor force in 2023, but this applies only to urban areas, and underemployment is widespread. The majority of Bolivians are informally employed, mostly as traders, artisans, or self-employed service providers. These jobs are unregulated and untaxed. Setting up a legitimate business is extremely difficult in Bolivia, and the process is slowed by red tape and the necessity of paying bribes.

Bolivia's gross domestic product (GDP; purchasing power parity) was an estimated US$120.531 billion, or US$9,800 per capita, in 2023.

Industry: Mining activity is an important part of Bolivia’s industry. Substances mined include tin, lead, silver, gold, antimony, zinc, tungsten, petroleum, and natural gas. Other significant industries include food and beverages, handicrafts, clothing, and jewelry.

Major exports include gold, natural gas, zinc, silver, soy products, and tin. In 2023, exports from Bolivia earned an estimated US$11.905 billion.

Agriculture: Only about 3.6 percent of the land in Bolivia is arable. Potatoes are a traditional staple crop, along with corn, rice, and barley. Soybeans became increasingly important in the late twentieth century. Sugarcane, Brazil nuts, coffee, chia, and quinoa are other common crops.

Bolivia is also one of the world’s largest producers of the coca plant, used to make cocaine. The cocaine trade represents a large portion of illegal earnings in unregulated jobs.

Tourism: Bolivia's tourism industry has grown significantly in the twenty-first century. The global COVID-19 pandemic that began in 2020 caused a severe decline, however, with significant negative economic impact.

Popular tourist sites include La Paz, the capital; Lake Titicaca; the Yungas valleys; the Moon Valley rock formations; Cochabamba, the garden city; Potosi, a mineral center, historic memorial and World Cultural and Natural Historical Site; Sucre, the colonial capital with its many museums; Noel Kempff Mercado National Park in the northeast; and Tarija, famous for its flowers, wines, and climate.

Mount Chacaltaya, at 5,421 meters (17,785 feet), boasts the highest ski resort in the world. Because of the thin air, oxygen tanks are available for fainting skiers.

Government

With the help of Simón Bolívar, Bolivia gained its independence from Spain in 1825. The country is named in honor of its liberator. In the century after independence, Bolivia had forty different heads of government. Coups were frequent, and six of the chief executives were assassinated in office.

In the Chaco War (1932–35), Bolivia lost most of the Chaco to Paraguay. A result was a resurgence of nationalism. The 1952 revolution brought about universal adult suffrage, education reform, the end of serfdom, and the nationalization of mines. Although the middle class ruled instead of the oligarchy, the same system of favoritism and monopoly of the economy persisted. The nation's last coup of the twentieth century occurred in 1978. Democratic civilian rule was restored in 1982. Since then, the country has enjoyed a relatively stable government.

In 2006, President Evo Morales began the process of drafting a new constitution that would give citizens, particularly Indigenous citizens, greater power and autonomy. The new constitution was passed in a 2009 referendum with over 61 percent of the vote. Among other changes, the new constitution defined Bolivia as officially secular rather than Catholic. The constitution was amended in 2013.

The president is both the chief of state and the head of government. The president and vice president are elected to five-year terms; term limits were abolished by court decree in 2017. (President Morales drew controversy in the late 2010s for seeking ways to win a third term, and even declared victory in the 2019 election, but was subsequently forced from power.)

The legislative branch, the bicameral Asamblea Legislativa Plurinacional (Plurinational Legislative Assembly), consists of the 36-seat Camara de Senadores (Chamber of Senators) and the 130-seat Camara de Diputados (Chamber of Deputies). Senators are elected by proportional representation to five-year terms. Of the deputies, seventy are elected by majority vote, fifty-three are elected by proportional representation, and seven are elected from noncontiguous rural areas in seven states, also by majority vote. Deputies also serve five-year terms.

The judicial branch includes the Tribunal Supremo de Justicia (Supreme Court), the Plurinational Constitutional Tribunal, and the Plurinational Electoral Organ. There is also a National Agro-Environment Court and a Council of the Judiciary.

In 2020, the Mas socialist party returned to power after a year-long constitutional crisis, and Luis Alberto Arce Catacora was elected president.

Interesting Facts

• The reed boats of Lake Titicaca take about three days to build and have a life of only about seven or eight months.
• Bolivia is one of two landlocked countries in South America; the other is Paraguay.
• In La Paz, cebritas, volunteers dressed in zebra costumes, encourage traffic safety and help pedestrians cross busy streets.
• Salar de Uyuni is the world's largest salt flat and salt deposit, with more than 64 million tons of the mineral. When it rains, it also becomes the world's largest naturally occurring mirror.

Bibliography

"Bolivia." The World Bank, 2024, data.worldbank.org/country/bolivia. Accessed 29 Jan. 2025.

"Bolivia." The World Factbook, Central Intelligence Agency, 16 Jan. 2025, www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/bolivia/. Accessed 29 Jan. 2025.

Counting Bolivia’s Indigenous Peoples. Gender and Diversity Division, Inter-American Development Bank, Dec. 2014, idbdocs.iadb.org/wsdocs/getdocument.aspx?docnum=39334197. Accessed 2 June 2022.

"Human Development Insights." Human Development Reports, UNDP, hdr.undp.org/data-center/country-insights#/ranks. Accessed 29 Jan. 2025.

"Bolivia Country Profile." BBC News, 7 Feb. 2023, www.bbc.com/news/world-latin-america-19331501. Accessed 29 Jan. 2025.