Schmalkaldic War
The Schmalkaldic War (1546-1547) was a conflict in the Holy Roman Empire, sparked by the Protestant princes' military alliance, the Schmalkaldic League, in response to the outlawing of Protestantism by the Imperial Diet of Augsburg in 1530. The war arose as Emperor Charles V sought to reassert Catholic dominance after a period focused on other European conflicts. With support from the pope and Catholic states, Charles mobilized a substantial military force, while the Protestant coalition struggled with internal divisions and missed opportunities for decisive action.
The war culminated in a significant victory for Charles at the Battle of Mühlberg in April 1547, leading to the capture of key Protestant leaders and territorial losses for the Protestants. However, Charles's attempt to impose a religious settlement after his victory met with strong resistance, ultimately leading to renewed conflict in 1552. The war significantly impacted the religious landscape of Germany, culminating in the Peace of Augsburg in 1555, which established a legal framework for the coexistence of Catholicism and Protestantism, highlighting the limitations of imperial power in the region.
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Subject Terms
Schmalkaldic War
At issue: The authority of the Holy Roman emperor versus the survival of Protestantism in Germany
Date: June, 1546-June, 1547
Location: Central Holy Roman Empire (southern Germany, the Rhineland, and Saxony)
Combatants: Holy Roman Empire/Imperialists vs. the Schmalkaldic League
Principal commanders:Holy Roman Empire, Charles V (1500–1558), Fernando álvarez de Toledo, duke of Alva (1507–1582), Maurice, duke of Saxony-Dresden (1521–1553); Schmalkaldic League, John Frederick, elector of Saxony-Wittenberg (1503–1554), Philip, landgrave of Hesse (1504–1567)
Principal battle: Mühlberg
Result: The Holy Roman emperor won and attempted to impose a slightly modified form of Catholicism on German Protestants
Background
When the Imperial Diet of Augsburg outlawed Protestantism (1530), the German Protestant princes formed a military alliance, the Schmalkaldic League. The emperor, Charles V, was also ruler of Spain and its American possessions, the Netherlands, and numerous smaller territories, which kept him busy with other matters for the next decade, but the conclusion of a favorable peace with France in 1544 freed him to finally focus on the problem of Protestantism in Germany.
Encouraged by the pope’s offer of 1,100,000 ducats, 12,000 infantry, and 500 cavalry to support an assault on the Protestants and concerned that the majority of the seven German electors—the princes and archbishops who would choose his successor—would soon be Protestant, Charles talked peace during 1545 while preparing for war. He mobilized troops from his possessions in Spain, Italy, Germany, and the Netherlands, and summoned his best general, Fernando álvarez de Toledo, duke of Alva. He also secured the support of some German Catholic states (notably Bavaria), the neutrality of some German Protestant states (particularly Nuremberg), and the active alliance of the ambitious Protestant Maurice, duke of Saxony-Dresden.
Action
Alerted to the emperor’s preparations in 1546, the Protestants mobilized quickly, with the princes of Electoral Saxony, Hesse, and Anhalt and the imperial cities of Augsburg, Strasbourg, and Ulm rallying to the cause. Ready before Charles’s troops had arrived but burdened with divided councils and command, they failed to move either against him or into his Tyrolian or Bohemian territories, which had strong Protestant sympathies. The emperor was thus able to assemble his forces unhindered, and the two armies spent the early fall conducting a series of inconclusive maneuvers in southern Germany.
The situation changed abruptly in November when the duke of Saxony-Dresden suddenly invaded neighboring Saxony-Wittenberg, hoping thereby to gain his cousin’s territory and electoral vote. Elector John Frederick quickly moved his army to counter this attack, but his departure inspired the rest of the Protestant force to disperse as well, leaving Charles in control of southern Germany and the Rhineland. The southern German Protestants sued for peace, which Charles granted at a heavy price.
Alarmed by Charles’s success, northern German Protestant princes and cities entered the fray, but once again, the Protestants let the initiative slip from their grasp. In the early spring of 1547, Charles moved into Saxony with his Spanish veterans, and they surprised and defeated the elector’s army at Mühlberg (April 24, 1547). John Frederick was captured and on May 19 gave up much of his duchy and his electorship to his cousin. In June, Philip, landgrave of Hesse, surrendered on his son-in-law Maurice’s promise of leniency (a promise Charles was not party to and did not honor), effectively ending the war.
Aftermath
The Schmalkaldic War was one of the few wars in sixteenth century Europe ended by decisive battlefield action. However, when Charles attempted to capitalize on his victory by imposing a religious settlement that amounted to a slightly modified version of Catholicism in 1548, his action generated fierce opposition among Protestants. Furthermore, the enhancement to imperial power that it represented alienated Catholic and Protestant German princes as well as the pope. Consequently, war broke out again in 1552. The Revolt of the Princes lasted only a year and ended with a stalemate. The resultant Peace of Augsburg (1555) institutionalized the religious division of Germany and signaled the fundamental limitations of the Holy Roman emperor’s power.
Bibliography
Eyck, Frank. Religion and Politics in German History. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1998.
Holborn, Hajo. A History of Modern Germany: The Reformation. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1967.
Rady, Martyn. The Emperor Charles V. New York: Addison-Wesley, 1988.
Wilson, Peter. The Holy Roman Empire, 1495–1806. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1999.