War of a Thousand Days
The War of a Thousand Days (1899-1902) was a significant civil conflict in Colombia, rooted in longstanding political and economic divisions between the Liberal and Conservative parties. These divisions were intensified by issues surrounding centralism versus federalism and the role of the Catholic Church in society. The war began on October 18, 1899, after the government declared a state of siege, leading to early Liberal defeats in key battles. Over time, the conflict evolved into a guerrilla war, resulting in substantial casualties, primarily from disease rather than combat.
The war's aftermath was profound, contributing to the loss of Panama in 1903 after the Colombian Congress rejected a treaty for a canal, which led to a Panamanian revolt supported by the United States. The conflict not only reshaped Colombia's political landscape but also had lasting implications for its national identity and international relations, particularly concerning U.S. involvement in Latin America. The War of a Thousand Days remains a pivotal event in Colombian history, reflecting the complexities of its political struggles and the socio-economic factors at play during that era.
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War of a Thousand Days
At issue: The government and constitution of Colombia
Date: October 18, 1899-November 21, 1902
Location: Colombia
Combatants: Liberal vs. Conservative forces
Principal commanders:Conservative, Manuel Sergio Sanclemente, José Manuel Marroquín (1827–1908); Liberal, Rafael Uribe Uribe (1859–1914), Benjamín Herrera (1850–1924), Aurelio Masuera y Masuera
Principal battles: Los Obispo, Nocaima, Bucaramanga, Peralonso River, Palonegro
Result: Conservative victory; the creation of the country of Panama; the building of the Panama Canal
Background
Two long-standing issues had divided Colombia since it gained independence under Simón Bolívar: whether a centralist or federalist political system would be the best arrangement for Colombia and what role was appropriate for the Catholic Church, and particularly for its clerics, in the country’s society. Federalism was strongest in the years between 1863 and 1880, and subsequent government publications refer to that period as the “epoch of civil wars.” In 51 of the 240 months that passed in the 1860’s and 1870’s, some form of civil conflict was taking place within the country. The Colombian army was so small that public order could not be maintained.
The power of the anticlerical faction reached its peak in the early 1860’s. A revolutionary government headed by Tomás Cipriano de Mosquera expropriated church lands, and a constitution adopted in 1863 guaranteed freedom of religious practice, thus bringing to an end the traditional intimate relationship between church and state in Colombia. During the period of regeneration (1880–1895), both actions were reversed under Rafael Núñez and the Conservatives who followed him. After further civil conflict in the 1880’s, Núñez was able to create a new constitution in 1886, to reestablish relations with the Vatican via the Concordat of 1887, and to promote some internal improvements and industrial development. However, the political struggle between Liberals and Conservatives was far from over. In 1896, the international coffee market experienced a drastic decline. This factor, in conjunction with the preexisting political divide, brought the country to the brink of disaster.
The Liberal Party represented coffee plantation owners and import-export merchants who favored a laissez-faire economic policy. Largely excluded from participation in government after the Conservative victory of 1885, the Liberals were further distressed by the drastic downturn in the international price of coffee. By 1899, many coffee growers were operating at a loss.
The Conservative government, suffering from reduced customs revenues, responded by issuing unbacked paper currency, causing the value of the peso to drop precipitously. War erupted in the coffee-growing regions in 1899.
Action
The war officially began on October 18, 1899, when the government declared a state of siege. In the first year of the war, approximately 13,500 died from direct combat in skirmishes that involved at least 200 men on both sides. The total number dead in the first year was approximately 20,000. Most of the casualties afterward were due to disease, as the conflict became a guerrilla war in the jungles and mountains of Colombia.
The major battles in the first year, at Los Obispo, Nocaima, and Bucaramanga (all 1899), ended in Liberal defeats. On December 15, 1899, the Liberals scored a stunning victory at Peralonso River. Instead of continued fighting, however, both sides took the next five months to regroup. On May 11, 1900, near Bucaramanga, at Palonegro, approximately 15,000 Conservatives engaged half as many Liberals. By May 13, the Liberal forces had made great strides and had pushed the Conservatives close to defeat. The Liberals retreated, and by May 25, the manner of warfare turned from conventional to guerrilla.
On July 31, 1900, Conservative factions unhappy with the prosecution of the war staged a coup to remove President Manuel Sergio Sanclemente from office: The government of José Manuel Marroquín increased domestic repression and heightened the intensity of the guerrilla war in an attempt to settle the war decisively.
In June of 1902, the conservative government offered a general amnesty to the soldiers to end the fighting. On August 27, Aurelio Masuera y Masuera surrendered.
On October 12, Rafael Uribe Uribe signed the Treaty of Neerlandia, and on November 21, Benjamín Herrera signed a peace treaty aboard the USS Wisconsin.
Aftermath
The civil war led directly to the loss of Panama. The Colombian congress rejected the Treaty of Hay-Herran, in January of 1903, which included the United States’ offer to build a canal across the isthmus. In 1903, the Panamanians, with the aid of the United States, revolted against the government in Bogotá, knowing that the military apparatus had been decimated by the war. The new Panamanian government signed a treaty agreement providing for U.S. sovereignty in the ten-mile-wide canal zone in exchange for an agreement with the United States to build the canal and to provide regular annual payments to Panama.
Bibliography
Bergquist, Charles W. Coffee and Conflict in Colombia: 1886–1910. Reprint. Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1986.
Delpar, Helen. Red Against Blue: The Liberal Party in Colombian Politics, 1863–1899. New York: Preager, 1974.
Dix, Robert H. The Politics of Colombia. New York: Preager, 1987.
Herring, Hubert. A History of Latin America: From the Beginnings to Present. 3d ed. New York: Knopf, 1972.