Wars of Toussaint-Louverture
The Wars of Toussaint-Louverture were a pivotal series of conflicts in Haiti, which began in 1791 amid widespread unrest in the French colony of Saint-Domingue. The backdrop involved a massive slave revolt, driven by a mix of social, political, and economic tensions, following the upheaval of the French Revolution. Toussaint-Louverture, initially a loyal slave, emerged as a key military leader, adeptly navigating alliances with both Spanish and French forces to rise to power. His military acumen allowed him to consolidate control over much of the colony, where he established significant reforms, including the abolition of slavery and the creation of a constitution.
However, Toussaint’s aspirations were complicated by external pressures, particularly from Napoleon Bonaparte, who sought to reestablish French control and the plantation system. In 1802, French forces, led by General Leclerc, launched an invasion to subdue Toussaint, resulting in fierce battles that exemplified the determination of the black resistance. Despite initial successes, Toussaint was ultimately captured and exiled to France, where he died in 1803. Following his downfall, the spirit of resistance continued among Haitians, culminating in the expulsion of French forces and the declaration of Haiti's independence on January 1, 1804. The wars are a significant chapter in the history of resistance against colonialism and the fight for freedom and equality.
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Wars of Toussaint-Louverture
At issue: The termination of black slavery
Date: 1793–1803
Location: Santo Domingo (later Haiti)
Combatants: French vs. mulattoes
Principal commanders:French, Commissioner Léger Félicité Sonthonax (1763–1813), Governor étienne Laveaux, General Charles-Victor-Emmanuel Leclerc (1772–1802), Theodore Hédouville; Mulatto, Toussaint-Louverture (1743–1803), André Rigaud (1761–1811)
Result: Haitian independence
Background
In 1789, Haiti (Saint-Domingue), a prosperous French colony in western Hispaniola, was engulfed in a volatile situation involving white disunity, mulatto and free black exploitation, slave mistreatment, and abolition movements. Turmoil from the French Revolution soon spread to the island, bringing a steady decline in bureaucratic control and an ever-widening conflict between whites and mulattoes. On the night of August 22, 1791, 500,000 slaves suddenly revolted, destroying plantations and killing the owners. Two years of confused struggles followed as blacks, mulattoes, and whites fought each other as well as the English and Spanish, who joined the fray in an attempt to take advantage of the confusion.
Action
Once a loyal slave, Toussaint-Louverture, with 600 disciplined black soldiers, joined the Spanish effort in 1793. By 1794, his command having grown to 4,000 men, he deserted Spain and joined the French, aiding forces led by French commissioner Léger Félicité Sonthonax, whose alliance with the mulattoes was disastrous for the whites and himself, and Governor étienne Laveaux, whose friendship with Toussaint became a useful instrument in Toussaint’s rise to power. Demonstrating a remarkable knowledge of political and military tactics, Toussaint turned against the Spanish leaders he had previously fought beside. By 1796, he controlled most of the north and west provinces. With the help of André Rigaud, a mulatto who had fought British forces in the south, Toussaint rose to power and, in turn, began to eliminate his strong rivals for power. To further his own advancement, Rigaud engineered a plot to capture and imprison Laveaux. Toussaint’s threats gained the release of Laveaux, who gratefully made Toussaint the new lieutenant governor. When Sonthonax, who seemed bent upon white extermination, balked at returning to France, Toussaint and his huge army forced him out.
During Toussaint’s struggle with Sonthonax, the British had renewed their attempt to conquer Saint-Domingue. In 1796 and much of 1797, the British mounted several attacks in the southern provinces, where they found Toussaint, the blacks and mulattoes, and yellow fever and malaria to be formidable opponents. Consequently, in March, 1798, the British offered Toussaint support for Saint-Domingue’s independence from France, but he declined. Eventually, Britain promised trade with Saint-Domingue and support for American commerce with Saint-Domingue. They also agreed not to invade Saint-Domingue again. In return, Toussaint promised never to invade Jamaica, a British colony.
In the meantime, the French Directory dispatched Theodore Hédouville, a French special agent, to Saint-Domingue to control Toussaint. Hédouville urged Toussaint to attack Jamaica or the southern United States, thereby hoping for the defeat of Toussaint. Also, Hédouville hoped to achieve retaliation against England and the United States, both of whom had joined against France. Toussaint refused to be controlled by Hédouville, who quickly formed an alliance with the mulatto leader Rigaud. Toussaint spread word that Hédouville intended to restore slavery, and, leading an army of angry blacks, forced Hédouville to flee the island. Hoping to convince the French Directory of his loyalty, Toussaint nevertheless moved toward a showdown with Rigaud. With the support of the United States and Britain, Toussaint launched a lengthy campaign against Rigaud in the southern province, finally driving him from the island in July, 1800.
With the conquest of the Spanish-owned eastern portion of Hispaniola, Toussaint claimed the entire island, and his authority was supreme. He guided the Central Assembly in the creation of the Constitution of 1801, which established him as governor-general for life, abolished slavery, instituted a militia, and recognized Catholicism as the official religion. Toussaint stopped short of declaring Saint-Domingue’s independence from France.
In March, 1799, Napoleon Bonaparte had overthrown the French Directory and had announced plans for the reconquest of Saint-Domingue. He intended to restore the plantation system, to deny England and the United States the benefits of trade with Saint-Domingue, and to rid Saint-Domingue of “that gilded African,” Toussaint.
In January, 1802, General Charles-Victor-Emmanuel Leclerc, Bonaparte’s brother-in-law, landed in Saint-Domingue with 12,000 men and attacked Toussaint immediately. Toussaint suffered a series of defeats, but the French losses were also heavy. Toussaint had begun to rout out the French, who faced a severe shortage of supplies and were stunned by the ferocious black army. In April, 1802, Toussaint, following the defection of his Ninth Regiment to the French, surrendered to Leclerc and retired to one of his plantations near Gonaives.
After Toussaint’s surrender, black resistance continued, and Toussaint, through his agents, maintained an active interest in the struggle. Fearing Toussaint’s reawakening ambition, Leclerc had Toussaint arrested and sent to France, where he died of mistreatment on April 7, 1803.
Aftermath
Leclerc’s program ultimately failed because of Bonaparte’s financial neglect of his own weakened troops and his preparation for a full restoration of slavery. Tested by extreme brutality and French disregard, the blacks bolstered their courage and expelled the French from the island in November, 1803. On January 1, 1804, the independence of Haiti was proclaimed.
Bibliography
Bell, Madison Smartt. All Souls’ Rising. New York: Viking Penguin Press, 1996.
Connelly, Owen. Blundering to Glory: Napoleon’s Military Campaign. Wilmington, Del.: Scholarly Resources, 1999.
Conrad, Glenn R. Road to Louisiana: The Saint-Domingue Refugees 1792–1809. Lafayette: University of Southwestern Louisiana, 1992.
Debs, Robert, et al. Written in Blood: The Story of the Haitian People, 1492–1995. Lanham, Md.: University Press of America, 1996.
Hannon, James Jess. Black Napoleon: Toussaint L’Ouverture. Eugene, Oreg.: Pacific American Press, 1999.
Myers, Walter Dean. Toussaint L’Ouverture: The Fight for Haiti’s Freedom. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1996.
Ros, Martin. Night of Fire: The Black Napoleon and the Battle for Haiti. New York: Sarpedon Press, 1994.
Wucker, Michele. Why the Cocks Fight. New York: Hill and Wang, 1999.