Militarization of Space

The militarization of space refers to the use and placement of military technology or weapons in Earth’s orbit and outer space. Since the dawn of the space age in the 1950s, nations have considered the strategic advantages of militarizing space. Much of the early research that eventually led to space exploration began as projects with military implications. The first rockets capable of reaching space developed from technology that was meant to be weapon-delivery systems; some of the first human-made objects placed in orbit were military satellites. During the Cold War (1947–1991), the international community was concerned about the growing potential to militarize space. To prevent an all-out arms race in space, many of the world’s nations signed a treaty in 1967 agreeing to use space exploration for peaceful purposes and to ban nuclear weapons in space. However, the treaty did not expressly forbid using space for military purposes. In the twenty-first century, nations continue to work toward gaining a military advantage in space. Although weapons systems have yet to be deployed above Earth’s atmosphere, research into space-based weapons is ongoing.

Background

Soon after the invention of flight technology in the early twentieth century, nations began to realize they needed some form of legal framework governing the skies above the planet. In 1919, the first laws were developed extending national sovereignty to the airspace above each nation. The upper limit to this airspace was considered to be a point about 62 miles (100 kilometers) above Earth in the upper reaches of the planet’s atmosphere. Although a thin layer of atmosphere continues beyond this point, it is generally considered to be the boundary at which outer space begins.

The first human-made objects to reach this boundary were German V-2 rockets launched in 1944 during World War II (1939–1945). The liquid-fuel rockets were loaded with 2,200 pounds of explosives and could travel at a range of about 200 miles (321 kilometers). In the later stages of the war, Germany launched more than three thousand V-2 rockets at targets in Great Britain and Belgium. As Germany’s defeat neared, the United States and Soviet Union raced to get their hands on this technology. Both nations accomplished their goal. The mastermind of Germany’s rocket program, Wernher von Braun, surrendered to the United States in 1945. The Soviets captured several German rocket manufacturing plants and with them, the plans for the V-2.

By the early 1950s, both the United States and the Soviet Union had developed nuclear weapons, sparking a global competition for military superiority. The superpowers saw rocket technology as a means to launch their nuclear weapons thousands of miles and reach the heart of each other’s home country. While much of the early research in the United States was geared toward this purpose, scientists understood that the same technology used to launch missiles could also be used for space exploration. They began pushing for the development of a scientific satellite that could be launched into Earth’s orbit. The project, known as Vanguard, was initiated in 1955 and placed under the control of the US Navy.

The Navy was nearing completion of the Vanguard program on October 4, 1957, when the Soviets shocked the world by launching the first artificial satellite—Sputnik 1. The beach ball–sized Sputnik may have only been able to transmit radio signals back to Earth, but it sent a message that the Soviets had reached space first. It also raised fears in both the nation’s leaders and the American public that the Soviet Union could soon deploy spy satellites over the United States.

Overview

Since 1955, the US military had also been developing plans for its own surveillance satellites, which were designed to fly over and photograph enemy territory before returning to Earth. The film would then be retrieved from the capsule. This first military satellite program was known as Weapon System 117L (WS 117L).

The launch of Sputnik prompted the United States to ramp up development of its scientific and military space projects. By 1959, WS 117L had developed three separate military satellite programs. One, the Missile Defense Alarm System (MIDAS), was to be a series of satellites meant to provide an early warning of a Soviet missile launch. The other two—Discoverer and the Satellite and Missile Observation System (SAMOS)—were surveillance satellites. In February 1959, the first Discoverer satellite was launched, although it was only a test flight. The first successful US spy satellite mission was Discoverer XIII launched in August 1960. The Discoverer program—also known by the code name Corona—launched more than one hundred missions from 1960 to 1972. MIDAS never worked as intended, and the SAMOS program was phased out after a few years.

As the Cold War rivalry between the United States and Soviet Union continued in the 1960s, international leaders recognized the threat that expanding the arms race into space would mean to the security of the planet. If either side was able to place nuclear weapons in space, it ran the risk of destabilizing the fragile peace and causing a nuclear war. Their concerns were not far-fetched. In 1959, the United States had proposed building a military base on the moon. The proposal, called Project Horizon, would have included the capability of launching nuclear missiles at Earth-based targets. The Soviets were trying to develop a system that would launch missiles into orbit where they could strike the United States without triggering a warning system.

In 1967, the United Nations (UN) oversaw the creation of the world’s first treaty on international space law. Known informally as the Outer Space Treaty of 1967, the agreement was signed by the United States, Soviet Union, and dozens of other nations. It is still in effect as of 2025, with more than one hundred signees. The main points of the treaty designated the moon, planets, and other space bodies as free for use by all humankind, as long as they were used for peaceful purposes. No nation could claim sovereignty over any space body. The treaty specifically outlawed the placement of nuclear weapons or other weapons of mass destruction in space. It also banned the testing of such weapons in orbit or on any space body.

The United States was a strong advocate of the treaty, partly because it wanted to ensure the Soviets could not develop a space-based nuclear missile delivery system. Also, the treaty did not prohibit non-nuclear conventional weapons in space and put no restrictions on military satellites. During the time, US leaders often made a distinction between the militarization and weaponization of space. They vigorously pursued the militarization of space, seeing it as an opportunity for the deployment of military satellites for surveillance, navigation, and directing ground-based operations. Deploying offensive weapons in space was considered weaponization.

By the early 1980s, the Cold War was still going strong. Both sides had a significant arsenal of nuclear weapons, which if launched, would completely destroy the other side. This strategic stalemate was known as mutually assured destruction, a military policy that prevented either nation from initiating a nuclear strike because to do so would result in its annihilation as well. In 1983, US president Ronald Reagan proposed the creation of a defense system that could intercept and destroy Soviet missiles before they could strike the United States. The system was known as the Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI), but the media nicknamed it “Star Wars” after the popular film series.

Reagan’s plan did not specify how an SDI system would work. He called upon American scientists to develop a missile defense system and promised funding for the endeavor. The technological capability to invent such a system did not yet exist in the 1980s, leading scientists to suggest ideas that bordered on science fiction. Some of these proposals included space-based laser systems and X-ray laser satellites. One idea, known as Brilliant Pebbles, would have deployed thousands of small missiles in orbit. Upon detecting a launch, the missiles would converge on the target, destroying it.

The SDI proposal angered the Soviet Union, which saw it as giving the United States a military advantage and undermining the idea of mutually assured destruction. It also felt some of the proposals would violate the 1967 Outer Space Treaty. Ultimately, SDI proved too costly and beyond the scientific limits of the time. Although SDI was never officially canceled, funding for the project was eventually reduced in the late 1980s and 1990s. Nevertheless, its proposal spurred the Soviet Union into investing a significant amount of money into its own defense system. At the time, the increase in military funding caused further damage to an already struggling Soviet economy. Many historians see the Soviet response to SDI as one of the many reasons that led to the breakup of the Soviet Union in 1991.

The United States had already been the leading nation in developing both civilian and military space technology, but the collapse of the Soviet Union further strengthened its hand. The United States continued its dominance into the twenty-first century; however, that position began to be challenged by China and Russia. Both nations initiated ambitious military space programs in an effort to catch up with the United States.

In 2007, China destroyed one of its obsolete weather satellites with a ground-based missile. China claimed it was just a missile test, but the United States and other nations saw the incident as a sign that the Chinese had the capability to target satellites in orbit. In 2008, the United States conducted a similar test of its own, claiming it was shooting down a military satellite that was in danger of falling to Earth. In 2013, China tested a missile that reached a height of 18,640 miles (30,000 kilometers), capable of reaching the orbit where the United States typically deploys its most sensitive military satellites. A year later, US intelligence monitoring a Russian satellite launch noticed a small piece of debris seemingly come to life and maneuver on its own in space. This led to speculation the object, nicknamed Kosmos 2499, could be an “assassin” craft designed to get close to US satellites and destroy them.

These and other developments increased concerns among US leaders that the Russians and Chinese were trying to develop technology to interfere with or destroy US satellites. As commercial and private space enterprises began to increase, US officials also worried that these endeavors could become targets. In response, the United States continued to develop its own space-based military systems. US policy has also begun to shift toward more offensive capabilities and taking a more active role in defending its interests in space.

One of the ideas considered by the US military is to revive the idea of the Brilliant Pebbles missile system and adapt it to modern technology. Other proposals include developing a space- or ground-based laser system that could target objects in orbit. These weapons—which are still years away from scientific reality—would utilize chemical lasers that produce energy through the interaction of atoms in chemical substances. Another system would use a particle beam, a weapon that fires subatomic particles at the speed of light, to destroy a target. Since the 1990s, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) has been developing a space plane intended to be used for non-military purposes. At one time, the Air Force was working with NASA on the project.

In 2018, President Donald Trump proposed creating a sixth branch of the US military known as the Space Force. The idea is not new, previous administrations have suggested the idea of creating a space corps within another branch of the military. Trump’s proposal would put the Space Force on even footing with the Army, Navy, Air Force, Marines, and Coast Guard. The United States Space Force (USSF) was founded on December 20, 2019, with the mission of supporting US interests by conducting a number of operations in outer space. Protecting satellites, conducting military and humanitarian operations, and supporting space launches were all identified by the organization as key areas of focus. The USSF had more than 9,400 service members, called Guardians, by 2024.

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