Polaris missiles
Polaris missiles, developed during the early Cold War, were the United States' first submarine-launched ballistic missiles (SLBMs), aimed primarily at the Soviet Union. Emerging from the need for a stealthy and reliable nuclear deterrent, the Polaris missile program began with the U.S. Navy commissioning Lockheed Corporation in 1956 to create a compact, solid-fuel missile that could be launched from submerged submarines. The Polaris A-1, measuring 28 feet in length, was designed to be ejected from storage tubes using compressed air, minimizing risks to submarines during launch.
Despite its initial limitations in accuracy and yield, the Polaris represented a significant advancement in military technology, achieving a successful test launch in 1959 and later deployment on the USS George Washington, the first nuclear-powered missile submarine. By the end of its production, Lockheed had constructed 1,150 Polaris missiles, which were also exported to the United Kingdom, marking a pivotal moment in nuclear arms collaboration. The Polaris system served as a crucial element of the U.S. strategic deterrent triad until its retirement in 1981, ultimately paving the way for more sophisticated missile systems like the Poseidon. Its long service life underscores its significance as a key component of Cold War military strategy.
Polaris missiles
Identification First practical submarine-based intercontinental ballistic weapon
Date First launched in April, 1959
Polaris missiles constituted an important part of U.S. strategic nuclear deterrence during the Cold War.
Throughout the early years of the Cold War, the United States began experimenting with the concept of submarine-launched ballistic missiles (SLBM) to be aimed at the Soviet Union. Preliminary efforts—such as the air-breathing Regulus II, an early cruise missile—were feasible technically but required submarines to surface in order to fire. Another stumbling block was reliance upon liquid fuel propellants, which were highly unstable and could be disastrous to a submarine if ignited prematurely. However, by the mid-1950’s, great strides had been made in the field of safer, solid fuel rocketry that would allow a submarine to carry its ordnance safely while still submerged. A vessel thus armed would be almost impossible to detect and therefore would be immune to destruction through a surprise, preemptive strike. In 1956, the U.S. Navy commissioned the Lockheed Corporation to develop such a weapon, possession of which would grant the United States tremendous strategic advantages over the Soviet Union in the event of war.
The resulting Polaris weapon, also known as the A-1, was a relatively small device, 28 feet long with a diameter of only 54 inches. The design was deliberately kept compact to facilitate the missile’s storage in firing tubes aboard a submarine. The missile was ejected from the tube by compressed air to minimize any chance of damage to the submarine, and once on the surface, the rocket motors ignited, propelling the missile and its nuclear warhead into low orbit. The Polaris was then guided to its target through an intricate inertial guidance system.
Accuracy in the A-1 was minimal by later standards; it was limited to within one mile of its target. This fact, coupled with the missile’s low-yield warhead and a one-thousand-mile range, made it less than ideal as a strategic weapon initially, but greater advances were anticipated over time. The Polaris was successfully test launched in April, 1959, and the following year, it deployed at sea onboard the USS George Washington, the world’s first atomic-powered missile submarine. This union of nuclear power with missile technology resulted in a powerful form of strategic deterrence, and thereafter submarines constituted the third rung of America’s triad nuclear strategy, following land-based missiles and piloted bombers.
Impact
Lockheed ultimately constructed 1,150 Polaris missiles, placed on twenty-one American ballistic submarines. The missiles were the first and only nuclear weapons exported abroad; in 1963 British prime ministerHarold Macmillan agreed to accept the missiles for Royal Navy submarines. The last Polaris was finally retired from the fleet in 1981, replaced by the more powerful Poseidon missile. The British retained their missiles in front-line service until the 1990’s, making the Polaris missile system one of the longest-serving and most successful nuclear deterrents of the Cold War era.
Bibliography
Moore, John E. The Impact of Polaris: The Origins of Britain’s Seaborne Nuclear Deterrent. Huddersfield, England: Richard Netherwood, 1999. A detailed policy study behind Macmillan’s decision to accept the Polaris for British use.
Solomon, James B. The Multilateral Force: America’s Nuclear Solution for NATO, 1960-1965. Annapolis, Md.: U.S. Naval Academy, 1999. High-level strategic study regarding the American emphasis on nuclear deterrence.
Spinardi, Graham, et al., eds. From Polaris to Trident: The Development of U.S. Fleet Ballistic Missile Technology. Cambridge, England: University of Cambridge Press, 1994. Uses the Polaris missiles as a starting point for its discussion on the development of the ballistic missile program.