Scythia
Scythia refers to an ancient region inhabited by nomadic peoples known as the Scythians, who thrived from the ninth century BCE in areas spanning parts of modern Ukraine, southern Russia, and central Asia. The Scythians were known for their mobility and skilled horseback riding, which enabled them to conquer the Cimmerians and expand their territory through military campaigns. They had a patriarchal society with a wealthy aristocracy, engaged in agriculture, hunting, and trade with Greek colonies. The Scythians practiced elaborate burial customs, often interring their dead with rich artifacts and horses, reflecting their beliefs in the afterlife. Their artistic legacy is characterized by intricate animal motifs and gold craftsmanship, particularly evident in their iconic golden stags. Scythian religion revolved around nature deities, with notable figures like Tabiti, the goddess of fire and beasts, playing a significant role in their spiritual practices. Over time, external pressures, particularly from the Sarmatians and other groups, led to the decline of Scythian influence by around 200 BCE. Today, the Scythians are recognized for their significant impact on the cultures and societies of the Eurasian steppe.
Scythia
Date: 1000-100 b.c.e.
Locale: Ukraine
Scythia
In the ninth century b.c.e., the Chinese emperor Ji Jing (r. 872-781 b.c.e.) sent his army to face nomadic raiders near the Scythian (SIH-thee-uhn) homeland. This disruption, possibly along with a drought, forced the Scythians to move westward. The mobility and quickness with which they moved made them seem to appear out of nowhere in the land of the Cimmerians in southern Ukraine. Because the Cimmerians still fought on foot, the Scythians had no trouble in defeating them and taking over their state. In a thirty-year war beginning at the end of the eighth century b.c.e., the Scythians hunted the Cimmerians to extinction in the Volga River Valley, Armenia, the borders of Assyria, and Asia Minor. During the campaign, the Scythians made a temporary alliance with Assyria but abandoned it when the terms hindered their war against the Cimmerians. The Scythians remained in Asia and raided Syria and Palestine and even reached the border of Egypt. The Medes then drove the Scythians out of the region, forcing the main community back into the Ukraine. Smaller groups went into central Europe or eastward as far as India.
According to legend, the founder of the Scythians was Targitaos of the house of Phalatae. The first historical ruler was a chieftain named Colaxis. In 512 b.c.e., the Persian emperor Darius the Great hoped to extend his empire into the rich lands of the Danubian plain and therefore invaded Scythia. However, the fierce Scythian defense of their homeland under King Idanthyrus forced the emperor to abandon his European dream and retreat to Asia.
Idanthyrus’s grandson Scyles introduced Greek fashions and styles into Scythia, sparking a revolt by his brother Ostomasades, who wanted to maintain traditional Scythian ways. Ostomasades murdered Scyles and took the throne. In 339 b.c.e., the ninety-year-old King Ateas was killed fighting Philip II of Macedonia. Scythia began to decline with the arrival of the Sarmatians in the fourth century b.c.e. The Scythians held out until about 200 b.c.e., when the Sarmatians drove the last remnants into the Crimea. The last kings were Scylurus and his son Palakus around 100 b.c.e.
Social structure
The Scythians had a patriarchal society with an aristocratic class of great wealth, called by Greek historian Herodotus the “royal Scythians” in contrast to the general population of “Scythian ploughmen.” When in transit, the Scythian men rode their horses, and the women and families rode in the ox carts bearing their tentlike homes with their possessions.
Government and economics
The Scythians divided their kingdom into four districts under governors who collected taxes and served as judges. They also collected tribute from the nearby Greek colonies. The aristocracy was nomadic, but the bulk of the commoners engaged in agriculture. Scythians also hunted and fished. They traded with the Greeks, exchanging forest and agricultural surplus for Greek luxuries. At the very end of their history, the Crimean Scythians minted coins.
Daily life and customs
Scythians counted their wealth in horses, and the upper classes owned many fine animals. Inferior horses served as food and draft labor. Scythians enjoyed inhaling the smoke of burning hemp seeds in groups. For this, they used cauldrons varying in size and shaped as truncated cones.
Death and burial
The Scythians had elaborate funerals lasting forty days. In addition to precious and ordinary objects, a Scythian’s horses were buried with him. Companions who died around the same time built their graves near to one another. The tombs are chambers under huge mounds up to seven feet (a little more than two meters) in height and sometimes in excess of a thousand feet (about 300 meters) in diameter. Scythian graves reveal richly ornamented clothing, rugs of felt and wool, and wooden furniture. The Scythians decorated their bodies with tattooed religious symbols, including stars, designs, and imaginary animals. The tombs also contain richly decorated jewelry, tools, and utensils including the typical hemp seed cauldrons.
War and weapons
In time of war, the Scythians divided forces into three divisions. Troops were fed and dressed but not paid unless they brought back the heads of their foe; then they earned a share of their booty. Often they would gild or silver the victims’ skulls and use them as drinking vessels for libations of blood and water. Scythians fought in bronze helmets and Greek-style chain mail with red felt linings. They carried round or rectangular shields of various materials and used a curved bow and arrows. They also used Persian swords and Chinese-style knives. Scythian weapons were made of bronze at first, but later they used iron. They decorated their weapons in gold, iron, and precious stones, often in the shape of real or fantastic animals. Scythians were among the first masters of the horse, and they decorated their saddles and bridles with rich ornamentation in animal motifs. The Scythians also used the scorched-earth tactic in wars.
Religion and ritual
Scythians worshiped nature but had no temples or priests. Their chief goddess was Tabiti, protector of beasts and fire. They also worshiped deities of the sky, earth, water, and the Moon and adopted Greek gods as well, sometimes identifying them with their own. Although they had no priests, they did have a class of eunuchs who acted as soothsayers. These dressed as women and exhibited feminine characteristics in punishment, it is said, for a sacrilege against Tabiti.
Visual arts
Scythian art demonstrated their focus on animals. Sculptures, paintings, and reliefs all have the same theme, real and imaginary beasts decorated for magical and religious purposes. The Scythians worked in leather, wood, bone, felt, bronze, and later iron. They also used gold, silver, and gems. Golden stags, in particular, are an impressive legacy of their art. Although their art is mainly representational, it often approaches the abstract.
Current views
Although Herodotus divided the Scythians into two classes, the aristocracy and the “ploughmen,” scholars today believe that only the aristocracy were true Scythians and the ploughmen were the remnants of the Cimmerians and earlier inhabitants.
Bibliography
Cernenko, E. V. The Scythians. London: Osprey, 1983.
Jacobson, Esther. The Art of the Scythians. Leiden, Netherlands: E. J. Brill, 1995.
Rice, Tamara. The Scythians. New York: Praeger, 1961.
Rolle, Renate. The World of the Scythians. London: Batsford, 1989.