Trojan War
The Trojan War is a significant event in Greek mythology, believed to have originated from a dispute among goddesses over an apple inscribed "to the fairest." This contention led to Paris of Troy being chosen to judge the goddesses, ultimately resulting in his abduction of Helen, the wife of Menelaus, king of Sparta. In retaliation, Menelaus enlisted his brother Agamemnon, king of Mycenae, to launch a campaign against Troy. While the war's details are primarily conveyed through mythological accounts, such as Homer's "Iliad," archaeological discoveries at Hisarlik Hill suggest that a city associated with these legends existed, particularly during the Late Bronze Age. The conflict may have stemmed from various factors, including economic rivalry and military raids. Key elements of the myths, like the heroic battles and the cunning Trojan Horse, reflect the combat styles and societal values of the time. The eventual fall of Troy, marked by destruction by fire, coincided with broader upheavals in the region, leading to the onset of the Greek Dark Ages. The Trojan War remains a rich topic for exploration, blending history, archaeology, and mythology.
Trojan War
At issue: Probably control over Black Sea trade routes
Date: Actual dates unknown; about twelfth or thirteenth century b.c.e.
Location: Troad (northwest Turkey)
Combatants: Mycenaean Greeks vs. Trojans
Principal commanders: Unknown; according to myth: Greek, Agamemnon; Trojan, Priam
Principal battle: Siege of Troy
Result: Greek victory; destruction of Troy
Background
According to Greek mythology, the Trojan War originated with an apple. Eris (the personification of discord) instigated an argument between the goddesses Hera (queen of the gods, goddess of marriage), Athena (wisdom and war), and Aphrodite (love) by throwing a golden apple inscribed with the phrase “to the fairest” into their midst. Zeus sent the goddesses to Paris (also known as Alexander), son of Priam of Troy, who was to judge to whom the apple belonged. Each goddess offered him a bribe: Hera assured him of kingship over all men; Athena guaranteed victory in war, and Aphrodite promised him the most beautiful woman. He opted for Aphrodite’s gift and received the promise of Helen, the wife of Menelaus, king of Sparta. Paris sailed to Sparta and seduced Helen, who accompanied him back to Troy. Menelaus secured the assistance of his brother, Agamemnon, king of Mycenae, who organized a campaign to avenge the dishonor.
Unfortunately, no historical account of this war exists. For many years, Troy was believed to be a mythical city; however, in 1870–1, archaeologists Frank Calvert and Heinrich Schliemann pinpointed Hisarlik Hill as the site of the ancient city of Troy. The results of subsequent excavations proved that a large citadel (known as Troy VI, being the sixth layer of ruins) dominated the Trojan plain during the Mycenaean Period (Late Bronze Age Greece, 1400–1200 b.c.e.). Although some scholars disagree, believing the smaller Troy VII to be the city of legend, Troy VI, with its massive walls and large buildings, does appear to be the best candidate.
As the only major citadel in the Trojan plain, Troy dominated the region, especially the narrow waterway of the Dardanelles, which provided access to the rich agricultural regions surrounding the Black Sea. The Trojan War could have resulted from the Mycenaean cities of mainland Greece attempting to break a maritime monopoly. Other possible reasons for the conflict may have been a large raid, common among Mycenaean adventurers, to seize the wealth of the city, which also depended on the working of valuable metals and the breeding of horses.
Action
Details of the conflict are not available outside of mythology. Homer’s Iliad (c. 800 b.c.e., English translation, 1616) provides only a segment of the action, focusing on the hero, Achilles, who withdrew from the fighting after Agamemnon offended his honor. The war turned against Agamemnon, and all seemed lost until Patroclus, Achilles’ armor bearer, advanced onto the field wearing Achilles’ armor. Hector, another of Priam’s sons, killed him, causing Achilles to avenge Patroclus’s death by slaying Hector. Later Greek traditions add the death of Achilles by an arrow shot by Paris from the city walls. Other legends include the story of the Trojan Horse, a stratagem devised by Odysseus to infiltrate Troy through the use of a large, hollow, wooden horse. Agamemnon withdrew the navy, pretending to retreat. The Trojans believed the horse was a gift and brought it within the city walls. After nightfall, the navy returned. Men hidden within the horse, opened the gates, allowing the navy to invade the city. The Mycenaeans slaughtered the populace, looted the wealth, collected women for slaves, and then burned the city.
The only part of the myths that can be confirmed by archaeological study is that Troy suffered destruction by fire. Troy VI and VII both show signs of a widespread conflagration, adding to the controversy of identity. Thus, the defeat and subsequent fate of Troy appear to be substantiated. Elements of the myths also accurately reflect the style of combat for the period. The existence of chariots used by the mythical heroes is consistent with their widespread use after being introduced by the Hurrians and adopted by the Hittite Empire. A chariot did not charge into the enemy, but carried a warrior into battle, where he dismounted to fight on foot. The idea of heroes fighting in one-on-one combat is symptomatic of the Late Bronze Age soldiers, who fought for personal glory and enrichment. These soldiers did not belong to a standing army of a large state but were aristocrats who supplied their own weapons (consisting of a spear for throwing and a double-edged sword), armor (consisting of a large round shield, metal or leather breastplate, greaves, and a bronze helmet decorated with boar tusks), and men from their own households, who acted as the rank and file. These heroes followed a charismatic leader and would continue to do so as long as he brought them glory, honor, and riches. The absence of siege warfare meant that battles took place before the city, and assaults focused on the gates of the city. The strong fortified position of Troy VI leaves open the tantalizing question of whether the citadel ultimately fell to a ruse.
Aftermath
The Mycenaean Greeks of the mainland did not revel in victory for long. Within a generation, a series of migrations and invasions from the north (sometimes called the Dorian Invasions) began a process that disrupted Greece and initiated the period known as the Greek Dark Ages (1200-700 b.c.e.).
Bibliography
Allen, Susan Heuck. Finding the Walls of Troy: Frank Calvert and Heinrich Schliemann at Hisarlik. Berkeley: U of California P, 1999. Print.
Cline, Eric H. The Trojan War: A Very Short Introduction. New York: Oxford UP, 2013. Print.
Finley, M. I. The World of Odysseus. New York: Penguin, 1991. Print.
Fleischman, Paul. Dateline: Troy. Rev. ed. Somerville: Candlewick, 2006. Print.
Homer. The Iliad/The Odyssey. New York: Penguin, 1999. Print.
Quintus, Smyrnaeus. The Fall of Troy. Loeb Classical Library. New York: Macmillan, 1913.
Wood, Michael. In Search of the Trojan War. Rev. ed. Berkeley: U of California P, 1998. Print.