World War II Battles

To help place important aspects of World War II in a fuller historical context, this appendix offers details about selected major battles. The engagements are listed in chronological order. Battles that are covered in full essays within The Forties in America are marked with asterisks (*).

Battle of the Atlantic*

Date: 1939-1945

Location:Atlantic Ocean, including coasts and ports of the United States and Britain

The Battle of the Atlantic—so called because of the strategic warfare by German submarines and vessels against primarily British warships and commerce vessels in the Atlantic Ocean—challenged the military might of the Royal Navy and disrupted the transatlantic flow of supplies from North America that were needed by Allied ground forces in Europe. The first ship sunk during the six-year battle was a British passenger liner, Athenia, which went down with 112 people aboard. Twenty-eight of the dead were American citizens, thus prompting the United States to become a supplier to the British cause.

The first military vessel sunk by German submarines, the HMS Courageous, went down in September of 1939, taking with it more than 500 men. Shortly afterward, attacks on British naval bases followed. During the first three years of the battle for the Atlantic Ocean, German submarines (U-boats) sank more than 200 ships. Prior to American involvement in the war, German U-boats ruled the seas, as minimal escorts were available for convoy duty for either military or merchant vessels in the North Atlantic. The addition of air and sea support from Americans and Canadians helped minimize German success after 1943. The ratio of one U-boat destroyed for every fifty Allied vessels sunk changed dramatically in the later years of the war until it became a one-to-one ratio. In fact, German losses eventually became too great to continue the campaign. By the last year of the war, Allied control of the North Atlantic was nearly complete. Following German surrender however, reports showed that more than 170 German submarines had still been patrolling the coasts of the United States and its European allies.

Battle of Britain

Date: July 10-October 31, 1940

Locations: London and Plymouth, England, and Royal Air Force bases throughout Great Britain

Following the surrender of France in June, 1940, German military planning in Europe concentrated on one target: Great Britain. In an effort to force Britain to negotiate a peace settlement, Germany used its larger air force to attack British cities and Royal Air Force (RAF) bases throughout Britain. Germany’s air superiority was evident in the early stages of the war; also evident was an inadequate supply of well-trained and experienced British pilots. The Battle of Britain was an attempt by the Germans to gain control of the English Channel to limit the Royal Navy in blocking a possible German amphibious invasion from France.

Two things aided the British during the German air assault. First, the radar used by the British to detected incoming planes far surpassed the German ability to conceal their planes. Second, 112 Canadian pilots and a handful of American pilots (before the United States entered the war) significantly aided the outnumbered and relatively inexperienced RAF pilots against the better trained Germans. Strong rains and heavy fog also aided the British defense. By September 17, 1940, Adolf Hitler suspended daily bombings of London, Plymouth, and targets in Britain. By the time the Battle of Britain was over at the end of October, the less experienced RAF and Allied forces had shot down about 1,150 German planes, while losing only about 650 of their own. Although many cities had been seriously damaged from daily bombings and would continue to be targets throughout the war, the Battle of Britain was considered a success for Allied forces and would make a significant contribution to sustaining British morale through the rest of the war.

Pearl Harbor*

Date: December 7, 1941

Location: Pearl Harbor, Honolulu, Hawaii

In the Hawaiian Islands, December 7, 1941—a date that President Franklin D. Roosevelt said would “live in infamy”—began with a Japanese air strike at 7:48 a.m. The Japanese had succeeded in sending an attack force that included six aircraft carriers with more than 300 planes. The attack occurred prior to the formal declaration of war by the Japanese government. The resulting damage included the loss of the majority of the U.S. Pacific Fleet. Four battleships were sunk and four others were badly damaged, and three cruisers and three destroyers were either sunk or damaged. American causalities totaled 2,402. According to Japanese accounts, Pearl Harbor was attacked in order to give Japan a free reign over raw materials in the Pacific, most notably oil in the Philippines. The Americans were aware of a possible attack in the Philippines and the East Indies at U.S. military bases, but an attack on American territorial soil was not expected. The attack caused the opposite effect from what Japan had hoped; it angered the United States and brought the Americans into a war with Japan and its ally Germany.

Coral Sea

Date: May 4-8, 1942

Location: Coral Sea (Pacific)

The Battle of Coral Sea was the first naval campaign in which both the Japanese and Allied forces, including those of the United States and Australia, saw immediate action between rival aircraft carriers. On paper, the battle was a Japanese success because the Japanese sank more U.S. ships than they lost. However, the lasting effects of the battle became evident in the months to come. Damage suffered by several Japanese ships, including two aircraft carriers, made possible a lopsided U.S. victory in the Battle of Midway one month later. In both battles, the U.S. carriers Yorktown and Enterprise played prominent roles, and they would prove formidable foes to the Japanese Imperial Navy in the years to come.

Midway*

Date: June 3-7, 1942

Location: Midway Atoll (Pacific)

The battle of Midway Island was primarily a naval battle, although some damage was sustained by the U.S. ground forces on the Midway Atoll. The result of one of the most significant naval battles of the war was virtual parity between U.S. and Japanese naval forces. The battle cost the Japanese four carriers that were the heart of the Imperial fleet, and the loss of only one American carrier. After this battle, the Japanese had to go on the defensive in the Pacific.

El Alamein

Dates: July 1–July 27, 1942; October 23-November 4, 1942

Location: El Alamein, Egypt

The first battle of El Alamein was vital to Allied morale. The Allied forces, especially Britain, had suffered disheartening defeats by land and sea over the previous three years. If El Alamein fell to the Germans, Egypt and the Suez Canal would be next, and Allied supply routes would have to be extended to go around Southern Africa. Standing in the way of Allied forces was German field marshal Erwin Rommel. This first battle was ultimately a draw, creating a temporary stalemate that gave time to the Allies for fresh supplies to reach North Africa through the Suez Canal.

Often referred to as the first great Allied success, primarily because of British forces, the second battle of El Alamein was instrumental in both stalling the German advance in Europe and ending German plans to capture Egypt’s Suez Canal and the oil fields of the Middle East.

Guadalcanal*

Date: August 7, 1942-February 9, 1943

Location: On and around Guadalcanal, Solomon Islands, South Pacific

Guadalcanal was the first major offensive for American troops in the war. The battle consisted of air, land, and sea campaigns focused primarily around the island of Guadalcanal. The first major fighting over Guadalcanal resulted in the worst surface defeat for the U.S. Navy in its history. Japanese planes and naval ships bombarded the outnumbered U.S. fleet, sinking five cruisers while enduring minimal losses themselves. The Marine landings on Guadalcanal and surrounding islands resulted in further heavy American casualties, but they provided the first major American offensive victory and consequently constituted a turning point in the war. The U.S. ended a string of victories of the previously unchallenged Japanese army. American and Australian forces successfully protected Guadalcanal’s main airfield, which provided a major base on which Allied forces developed their air superiority in the Pacific.

Normandy

Date: June 6-August 25, 1944

Location: Normandy, France

The Battle of Normandy, known as D Day, is one of the most remembered land battles of the war. Twelve nations, including the United States and Canada, participated in the Normandy invasion. The initial assault on Omaha and Utah beaches resulted in the attempted landing of 130,000 Allied forces. By nightfall of the first day, nearly 10,000 Allied troops were dead or wounded. German forces were dug in, and steep cliffs overlooking the beach provided excellent cover for German machine gunners. Three nations—Great Britain, Canada, and the United States—were crucial in the D-day campaign. The outcome allowed for millions of men and tons of military might in the form of tanks, vehicles, and munitions to be delivered to Allied strongholds in Britain and France. The success of Allied forces at Normandy allowed for control of Western Europe while Russia was gaining ground in Eastern Europe. German forces were caught in between.

Philippine Sea

Date: June 19-20, 1944

Location: Near Mariana Islands

This battle was another turning point that signaled the imminent demise of the Japanese Imperial Navy. As supplies and raw materials dwindled for Japan, technological advances by the United States in plane construction and radar surpassed those of outdated Japanese aircraft. As a result, the Japanese lost three more aircraft carriers in this battle and more than 600 aircraft. Afterward, the Japanese had fewer than 100 aircraft in useable condition, and their carriers would be little use in future battles.

Leyte Gulf

Date: October 23-October 26, 1944

Location: Off the coast of Leyte, Philippine Sea

The largest naval battle in history, the Battle of Leyte Gulf was fought between the Japanese and American navies and included major engagements in the Sibuyan Sea, Surigao Strait, Cape Engaño, and Samar. The battle is known for two memorable events. First, Admiral William F. Halsey’s blunder of leaving a portion of the U.S. fleet unprotected adversely affected his reputation among his sailors for a short time. Second, the battle saw the first recorded kamikaze attacks, in which Japanese pilots flew explosive-laden planes directly into American ships. Nevertheless, the Allied forces all but destroyed the remaining enemy fleet, as the Japanese were forced to retreat.

The Bulge*

Date: December 16, 1944-January 25, 1945

Location: Ardennes Region (France, Luxembourg, Belgium)

The Battle of the Bulge saw the last major offensive of Germany in the war. The battle was fought during the brutally cold winter months of December and January in the Ardennes forests of France and Luxembourg. The German attack was a surprise to U.S. forces in Belgium. German forces had immediate success in the initial days of the attack; however, the push resulted in only a small “bulge” of allied troops in retreat. The American and Allied forces quickly reassembled and regained the lost territory, resulting in a German withdrawal weeks later. Casualties on both sides were significant. The United States alone lost nearly 75,000 men. Estimates indicate the Germans lost nearly 95,000 men. The weather, bitterly cold and snowy, played the biggest role in the battle. In the initial days of the battle, the poor weather conditions hampered Allied forces’ counterattack through the air, but soon after, they established air superiority. The battle also marked a first in war technology. German rocket-propelled planes were first used to bomb supply depots in the Battle of the Bulge. They were successful in their missions; however, because of unsuccessful attacks by German ground forces, the role of the planes was minimized.

Iwo Jima*

Date: February 19-March 16, 1945

Location: Iwo Jima, Ogasawara Islands, Pacific Ocean

One of the bloodiest battles of the entire war, Iwo Jima was a staging ground for U.S. and Allied superiority in the Pacific. Taking place fewer than eight hundred miles from the Japanese mainland, the battle was fiercely fought by the Japanese infantry. The battle is remembered for the record numbers of both Japanese and American casualties. Japan lost 95 percent of its fighting force, a small percentage of whom committed ritual suicide. The United States lost more than 27,000 men. The battle is also remembered because of a famous photograph taken of U.S. Marines planting an American flag on the island.

Okinawa*

Date: April 1-June 21, 1945

Location: Okinawa, Ryukyu Islands

The Battle of Okinawa was the bloodiest battle in the Pacific campaign. Allied causalities and those missing in action, primarily American, totaled more than 50,000, while Japanese numbers were 110,000. American forces initially experienced little resistance as they occupied the island. Not until American forces reached the caves of the island did Japanese forces catch them off-guard. In addition to the heavily entrenched Japanese infantry, Japanese kamikaze pilots bombarded U.S. naval support ships off the island. However, the Battle of Okinawa sealed Japan’s fate. Although the United States lost 34 ships and more than 700 planes, Japan lost 16 ships from its already severely depleted fleet and more than 7,000 planes. After this battle, U.S. forces continued to leapfrog through Pacific islands, steadily increasing Allied land, air, and sea superiority in anticipation of a massive amphibious landing on mainland Japan. However, after two atomic bombs were dropped on Japan in August, Japan surrendered, and the Allies occupied Japan peacefully.

Berlin

Date: April 16-May 2, 1945

Location: Berlin, Germany

The Battle of Berlin occurred at Germany’s final stronghold and signaled the last days of the Third Reich. On April 16, under agreement with the Western Allies (primarily Britain and the United States), Soviet forces advanced on the German capital. The battle lasted approximately sixteen days and provided three important historical footnotes. April 20, 1945, was the last public appearance of Adolf Hitler, who attempted a last-ditch rally of his shrinking army, which he tried to buttress with teenage and elderly conscripts. In addition, April 20 was Hitler’s birthday; from the Western Allies, he received a non-stop aerial bombardment and from the Soviet Red Army on the ground, a mortar attack. Finally, on April 30, Hitler took his life. The city fell two days later to Soviet, American, and British forces. However, the Allies permitted Soviet forces to take control of the city, setting up the basis for a future conflict between the communist and noncommunist worlds.