Fatimid caliphate

The Fatimid caliphate was an Islamic religious dynasty that ruled a region of northern Africa and the Middle East from 909 to 1171 CE. The Fatimids were followers of the Shia branch of Islam, a sect that traces its foundation through the bloodlines of the Prophet Muhammad. The dynasty rose to power on claims it was descended from Muhammad's daughter, Fatima, from whom it took its name. Fatimid leaders exercised both spiritual and secular authority over the caliphate and grew to challenge the Abbasid dynasty in Baghdad for supreme control over the Muslim world. They ruled from Egypt and established their capital at the city that would become modern-day Cairo. Internal strife, constant warfare, and the onset of the Crusades eventually weakened Fatimid power, and by the late twelfth century, the dynasty had ended.

Background

The religion of Islam was founded about 610 CE by Muhammad who was considered a messenger of God (Allah) and the greatest prophet of the Muslim faith. Muhammad began preaching his message in his home region of modern-day Saudi Arabia and within a few years had accumulated a great number of converts. Muhammad died in 632 but did not name a successor, igniting a dispute among his followers concerning who would become the next leader of Islam. Some argued that the new leader should be drawn from the best-qualified individuals and selected by a vote. This group backed Muhammad's friend and adviser, Abu Bakr, for the position. Others felt the title should remain in Muhammad's family and wanted to install Ali ibn Abi Talib, a cousin of Muhammad who was also married to his daughter, Fatima.

After a bitter debate, Abu Bakr was elevated to the position of caliph, the spiritual and temporal successor to Muhammad. Abu Bakr ruled for two years before he died of natural causes in 634. His two successors were both assassinated, paving the way for Ali ibn Abi Talib to finally become caliph in 656. His reign lasted until 661 when he too was killed. He was succeeded by his son, Hasan, who was also the son of Fatima and grandson of Muhammad. He ruled for only a few months before stepping down and turning power over to the Umayyad family, which began the Umayyad caliphate.

The supporters of Ali became known as Shia, from the Arabic term shi'atu Ali, or "partisans of Ali." They believed the legacy of Muhammad was passed down through religious leaders called imams, and that Ali was the first imam. The Shia did not recognize the authority of the Umayyads and continued to believe they were the legitimate successors of Muhammad. Those who supported Abu Bakr believed the focus of Islam should be on the words and teachings of Muhammad known as the Sunnah. The adherents of this branch were called Sunni Muslims. The Sunnis became the largest sect of Islam, and many viewed the Shia as heretics.

Overview

The Umayyads were Sunni Muslims who ruled the first Islamic dynasty from their capital at Damascus in modern-day Syria. In 750, the Umayyads were overthrown by the Abbasids who established their own Sunni caliphate in the city of Baghdad in Iraq. Unlike the Umayyads, the Abbasids turned their attention away from the Islamic lands of northern Africa and the Mediterranean to focus on consolidating their rule in the Middle East. Near the beginning of the tenth century, a Shia leader named Ubayd Allah al-Mahdi Billah began to gain power in northern Africa by taking a rebellious stance against Abbasid rule. Backed by military force and a strong Shia presence in the region, Ubayd traveled to Tunisia in 909 and declared himself ruler of a new Islamic kingdom—the Fatimid caliphate.

Ubayd assumed the dual title of both caliph and imam, claiming secular and religious authority over both the Sunni and Shia branches of Islam. He based his right to the title on claims he was descended from Muhammad through the bloodline of Ali and Fatima. The early Fatimid caliphate extended from modern-day Morocco, through Algeria and Tunisia, and into Libya. In 969, the Fatimids conquered Egypt and established their capital at al-Qahira—Arabic for "the triumphant"—a city that would later become known as Cairo. The city became a prosperous trade hub and grew into the powerful cultural center of the Islamic world. From its base in Egypt, the Fatimid caliphate began expanding its reach, gaining control over Syria, Palestine, and the holy cities of Mecca and Medina.

In contrast to the Abbasid dynasty, the Fatimids did not attempt to forcibly convert the populations under their rule. Sunni Muslims, Christians, and Jews were allowed freedom of worship, and civil offices were awarded based on merit rather than family status or religion. A notable exception to this policy of tolerance was the sixth Fatimid caliph, Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah, who ruled from 996 to 1021. Known as the "Mad Caliph," Al-Hakim declared himself a god and ordered the execution of anyone unlucky enough to anger him. He began a brutal persecution of Jews and Christians, destroying many holy sites throughout the Middle East, including the Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem. The destruction of the church was one of the rallying points that sparked the Christian Crusades in the late eleventh century. Al-Hakim's rule ended in 1021 when he disappeared under suspicious circumstances.

In 1057, a general in Iraq declared Fatimid control over the town of Mosul and later claimed sovereignty over Baghdad. The Fatimid leaders in Cairo, however, were unable to support him militarily, and he was driven out of Iraq in 1059. By this time, the Fatimid empire itself was under attack by invading forces. They had already lost control of Algeria and Tunisia by the mid-eleventh century and saw their Syrian territory fall to the Turks in the 1070s and Palestine to the Christian Crusaders in 1099.

In 1073, a Fatimid general named Badr-al-Jamali seized control of Cairo in an attempt to restore a centralized authority to the caliphate. He established a hereditary line of succession and temporarily managed to bring a measure of stability to the crumbling empire. Upon assuming power, Badr's son renounced the Fatimid claim to supreme authority over all Muslims, effectively reducing the caliphate to a regional Egyptian dynasty. Internal disputes caused further political unrest within the caliphate, and in 1171, the Sunni leader Saladin, founder of the Ayyubid dynasty, gained control of Egypt and officially brought an end to the Fatimid caliphate.

Bibliography

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