Human Sacrifice
Human sacrifice is a historical and anthropological practice that involves the ritualistic killing of a person, often for religious or cultural reasons. It has been documented across various civilizations and continents for thousands of years, from ancient Mesopotamia to the Americas. The motivations behind human sacrifice were often tied to beliefs in the afterlife, appeasement of deities, or fulfilling societal obligations. In some cultures, such as the Aztecs, large-scale sacrifices were performed to ensure the survival of the sun and life itself, while other traditions, like retainer sacrifice, involved entombing servants with royalty to maintain their service in the afterlife.
The interpretation of ancient practices can be complex, as anthropologists frequently debate what qualifies as human sacrifice versus mere murder or ritual execution. Evidence from archaeological sites, such as European bog bodies or the mass graves in Carthage, has led to differing conclusions about the nature of these deaths. Despite its historical prevalence, human sacrifice is now largely rejected in contemporary societies, often viewed through a critical lens that reflects on the ethical implications and cultural contexts that shaped these practices.
Subject Terms
Human Sacrifice
Human sacrifice is a commonly discussed anthropological topic, as well as a popular trope in television shows and movies. It was practiced for thousands of years and on almost all continents. Sacrifices ranged from a single individual to Aztec rituals involving the deaths of hundreds. Isolated cases of human sacrifice have been reported to the modern day.
What Qualifies as a Sacrifice?
The concept of human sacrifice requires that a person be killed in a ritualistic or religious manner. Not every murder qualifies. However, piecing together the circumstances surrounding a death that took place hundreds or thousands of years ago is a difficult task. Anthropologists and historians often disagree as to whether a specific event should be counted as sacrifice, murder, or suicide.
European bog bodies are a good example of this. Over the last century, researchers have studied hundreds of bodies unearthed in European peat bogs. Because of the unique environmental conditions in the bogs, these bodies are unusually well preserved. Despite being in some cases thousands of years old, these bodies still possess intact fingerprints, internal organs, recognizable facial features, and even styled hair.
Some bog bodies display evidence of being ritually killed. A number of anthropologists believe that the multiple fatal wounds, some inflicted after death, are signs of human sacrifice. They point out that the bodies were not cremated, which would have been the normal funerary practice of the time. Instead, they argue, the body was kept whole for the gods. Other anthropologists argue that this is insufficient evidence. They claim that these bodies could be executed criminals, or murder victims thrown into the bog to conceal a crime.
The reported child sacrifice of Carthage is another example of this. Several ancient Romans wrote about Carthage, accusing the famous city-state of burning their children alive as sacrifices to the gods. The bodies of hundreds of infants, some of them burned, have been found in mass child graveyards throughout Carthage. Symbols of gods are often placed above the graves, which some have interpreted as images of the gods that had sacrificed the children. However, some anthropologists believe these sites are nothing more than graveyards for children. They assert that infant mortality rates were much higher in ancient times and the burned bodies are simply cremated children. These experts argue that Rome was at war with Carthage for many years, and the Roman writers were simply writing propaganda to portray Rome's enemy in a negative light.
Human Sacrifice in History
Human sacrifice has a long and storied history. It is mentioned many times in the Old Testament of the Bible, normally as a prohibition. The early Israelites are warned that they should not sacrifice their sons and daughters to other gods, like their neighboring peoples.
One of the other common forms of human sacrifice is that of entombing the servants and companions of royalty with their master. This is often called retainer sacrifice. Many early religions believed in an afterlife. They also believed that if an individual was buried with his or her possessions, the person would be able to take those possessions into the afterlife. This is why the tombs of ancient royalty are sometimes stocked with treasures, books, and weapons.
Some civilizations extended this concept beyond objects. They believed that if a person’s servants, slaves, or pets were killed and entombed with an individual, these beings would continue to serve their master in the next life. For this reason, the Ancient Egyptians often place the servants of pharaohs in pharaohs’ tombs. Sometimes the servants were killed first, but other times, they were entombed alive. This practice was also common for a time in China, though live humans were eventually replaced with effigies. Additionally, researchers have found scattered evidence for retainer sacrifice throughout Europe, with most dating to the Iron Age (circa 1200–550 BCE).
Experts have found strong evidence that the short-lived Incan culture of South America routinely practiced human sacrifice. According to the testimonies of Spanish conquerors, Incan children were led into the mountains and sacrificed to their gods in annual festivals. These children were chosen years in advance, usually from peasant villages, and treated to a lavish lifestyle before their sacrifice. They were fed expensive food, such as llama meat, as well as copious amounts of alcohol and other narcotics before being killed. This evidence has been corroborated by the discovery of the mummies of several children, which have been preserved by the dry, cold air of the mountains.
The Aztecs of Mexico practiced human sacrifice in a particularly grand fashion. The Aztecs believed that the sun god needed blood sacrifices to survive. If these sacrifices were not met, the sun would cease to rise, and all life on Earth would perish. For this reason, the Aztecs captured thousands of people from nearby civilizations, as well as many of their own people, for massive sacrificial ceremonies on top of their giant pyramids. The victims would be violently killed, often having their hearts removed and blood drained before the priests disposed of their bodies. This process has been documented by historic accounts, surviving religious books, and the discovery of many human remains.
Bibliography
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