Religion

Religion refers to a system of beliefs, behaviors, and societal views that guide and direct the thoughts and actions of a group of people or an individual. A religion may have symbols, sacred objects, and writings.

Religions around the world frequently offer an explanation for the existence of the world and its inhabitants. Most, but not all, include some concept of supernatural beings that provide guidelines for human behavior; these beings have the authority to inflict punishment on human beings who do not follow their rules. The idea of religion often encompasses at least some aspects of good versus evil, and practitioners' actions are driven accordingly.

Rituals, shared beliefs, and practices often differentiate one religion from another. In addition, most religions have an institutionalized or a community component that differentiates one religion from another. However, a religion does not have to involve an entire community; it is possible for individuals to have their own singly held and unique religious practices.

The concept of religion has been approached from a number of different fields of study, including theology, philosophy, history, archeology, and psychology as well as natural sciences such as biology and chemistry.

The origin of the word "religion" can be traced through Middle English and Old French to Latin, where the word "religo" means "good faith," or "ritual," or to another Latin word, "religare," which means "to tie fast."

Definitions of Religion

To determine what comprises a religion and how to tell one religion from another, researchers and scholars often look at how practitioners act or behave because of their beliefs or practices. This is referred to as a substantive definition. They may also look at the effects of religious beliefs and practices on practitioners, which is called a functional definition. A substantive definition would consider the outward characteristics of a religion. It might ask questions such as, "Do adherents worship one god or multiple gods?" "What form does prayer take?" and "How is the church organized?" Finding such answers may be difficult, however. Researchers and scholars must be aware of personal biases that might limit how they see and define aspects of a religion. For example, someone raised in a Western Christian culture might not immediately recognize the activities of an ancient and different culture as being acts of worship.

Defining a religion substantively, by its practices, can also make it difficult to distinguish a religion from a passionate affinity for an activity or a person. For example, suppose a religion is defined as "a group of practitioners attending a weekly service during which they participate in a shared ritual involving music and food and are emotionally invested in this participation." This definition can refer to any number of religions, or churches, as well as to college football fans who attend weekly games where there is a marching band and food and who become excited when their team wins and disappointed when it loses. Using general terms such as "sharing beliefs and practices" can allow interpretations that fall outside of what is generally understood to be a religion.

Defining religion by its function can avoid some, but not all, of these ambiguities. Religions may help people deal with major life events such as death and life after death and understand why some events occur. Religions might also address how people should treat one another, how they should interact with the environment, and how their societies act and interact as a result of jointly held religious beliefs. Researchers and scholars can define religions by how they address life events and how their practitioners act and interact because of their professed beliefs. Once again, however, factors other than religion can define how a person should address life events. For example, a focus on gaining wealth can affect how a company's CEO treats his or her employees and how the company interacts with the environment. Sports can also be regarded in a similar manner as religion. It is difficult to pin down a definition of religion that cannot be applied to activities that are not considered religious.

These ambiguities become even more apparent when entities outside of those normally considered religious have a need to define the word "religion." Their efforts are often incomplete and inconsistent. For example, a 1992 study published in the Journal of Professional Nursing sought to differentiate spirituality from religion to help nurses understand the difference between tending to patients' spiritual needs during care and accommodating their religious practices. While its definition of religious needs centered on beliefs, worship, and practices, spiritual needs were more focused on relationships, principles, and quality of life. Most people espousing a particular religion, however, would likely see religious and spiritual needs as being entwined.

The United States Supreme Court has also often found itself grappling with the definition of religion in making its rulings. Definitions have varied from requiring belief in a supreme being to a liberal interpretation of religion as moral or ethical beliefs that were critically important to the person in question. A more restrictive interpretation of religion has been used in most decisions since the late twentieth century and requires that religious beliefs be "rooted in religion" but still fails to completely define what makes a religion. Lawmakers in other countries have faced similar challenges. For example, a 2010 United Kingdom law on religious discrimination does not make sense. It states that "a religion is any religion and a reference to religion must include a reference to a lack of religion." Those other than lawmakers have also grappled to come up with a definition for religion. The famous playwright George Bernard Shaw once said,"There is only one religion, though there are hundreds of versions of it." A theologian once quipped, "Define religion and you invite an argument."

Origins of Religion

The origins of religion are similarly shrouded in uncertainty. While specific religions have been the subject of study, discussion, and scrutiny for centuries, it was not until modern times that researchers began studying the overall concept of religion and looking for the earliest hints of its existence among humans. Archeological discoveries have made it clear that religions and religious concepts existed all around the world in nearly every stage of human existence. However, what is uncertain is how religions developed and evolved over time.

In searching for these answers, scientists are simultaneously studying both archaeology and the human mind. English naturalist Charles Darwin (1809-1882) theorized that religion developed naturally from the workings of the human mind as people began to wonder why humans and Earth exist. Those following Darwin's line of thought have proposed that humans are hardwired to believe in something supernatural. They cite studies where young children are questioned about why life is as it is and respond that some thinking entity made life this way for a specific purpose. Researchers also point to human tendencies to look for a person or a conscious entity to be behind unexplained sounds, as in asking "Who's there?" when they hear a noise instead of "What's that?"

Some have theorized that natural selection has bred into humans the trait of thinking that a supernatural power may have created the world. People in an early civilization would have needed each other to survive the many challenges they faced, and those who had similar beliefs—especially beliefs that encouraged such behaviors as being kind and looking out for each other—would be more likely to survive. This, in turn, would allow the population sharing those beliefs to grow and thrive. However, the theory of humans being hardwired to religion can be used to explain the existence or non-existence of God. The religious believe that God created human bodies, so he might just hardwire their minds this way. Atheists can use such findings to explain why so many people believe in God, without using this as an indicator that their beliefs are true.

Studies using advanced imaging techniques on human brains have shown that certain portions of the brain become more active during thoughts related to religious concepts, allowing scientists to "see" the areas of the brain that relate and react to ideas of a supreme being and worship practices. However, this still does not document for certain the origin of those thoughts, only how they affect the brain.

Timeline of Early Religious Beliefs

Researchers also find it difficult to determine at exactly what point people began to display behaviors consistent with religion. The earliest humans lacked a written language, so it is impossible to know why they worshiped certain objects or performed rituals. However, objects and painted images of early people engaging in rituals resemble later religious rituals. Archaeologists have uncovered carved pieces of ochre with what appear to be ritualistic religious symbols in Africa and believe they were carved as far back as 100,000 years ago. Burial remains from around the same time in Israel indicate that people were beginning to care about what happened to a person after death, a thought process that involves concepts often considered to be "religious." The hunter-gatherers of Paleolithic Europe carved statues that were half-man, half-human and left cave paintings depicting images that may have represented gods. Beginning around 11,000 years ago, people in a number of different locations began erecting sites with large stones that may have had religious significance.

However, it was not until people became literate about 5,000 years ago that researchers found clear indications of the intent behind the objects and sites that they uncovered. The writings left behind provide an interpretation for the objects and made it clear that cultures in Egypt and Mesopotamia had both human and divine leaders. Other literate cultures that followed left additional records that made it possible for researchers to study the concept of religion, making it clear that religion has existed at least as long as recorded history and most likely long before that.

Researchers have also noted that the development of religious practices can be used to differentiate humans and animals, or pre-life forms. For example, those studying chimpanzees have determined that chimps are capable of communication and repetitive behaviors. They are also capable of developing routines and being aware of others within their group performing these routines. However, chimpanzees are not capable of acting symbolically and do not convey their routines in drawings or imagery.

Researchers believe Neanderthal and other early humanoid species most likely began to see forms in nature, such as rock formations, as having human-like appearances and performed rituals related to these symbols. Symbolic actions and sharing common rituals and beliefs are inherent in religion and are part of how archaeologists and anthropologists determine if evidence found from an ancient culture is documentation of a religious practice. However, interpreting the evidence of these actions and rituals is subjective and defining religion remains difficult regardless of whether researchers are trying to do so for people thousands of years ago or today.

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