Apiology

Summary

Apiology is the scientific study of the honeybee. It is a subdiscipline of melittology, the study of all bees, and a branch of entomology. Apiologists study the evolution of the honeybee and answer questions surrounding its biology, particularly its social behavior and the insect’s ecological role in its habitat. Other areas of study include the honeybee’s reproduction cycle, proficiency at gathering nectar, and honey production. A critical topic for the apiologist is diseases of the honeybee. Given the migratory nature of commercial beekeeping, the spread of bee diseases and their treatment remain major challenges for beekeepers. Apiologists also focus on the effects of persistent issues like habitat loss, climate change, and pesticides.

Definition and Basic Principles

The terms apiology and apiculture (another word for beekeeping) are derived from apis, the Latin word for bee. The sciences to which these terms refer focus specifically on the honeybee. Although beekeepers (also called apiarists or apiculturists) are required to manage and maintain their colonies using up-to-date methods, it is the outcome of the research of apiologists and those scientifically investigating the well-being of the honeybee that sets the standard for good practice by beekeepers. Managers of commercial bee operations that might contain thousands of colonies depend on good scientific research to help them stay productive and competitive.

Background and History

Apiary research and development emerged from a basic understanding of the behavior of bees. The outcome of this research has had considerable practical impact.

The standard removable-frame beehive, a design patented in 1852, was developed by observing bee behavior. Patent holder Lorenzo Langstroth, a beekeeper and Congregationalist preacher from Ohio noticed that bees maintained a prescribed space before they sealed over the frames of the hive. His response to this bee space was to develop a structure that would function as the hive body but could be completely disassembled for harvesting honey and inspecting the bees. The outcome of this observation radically changed the way bees were housed and maintained.

The science of apiology has greatly contributed to understanding bees' genetic character and reproductive behaviors. By the 1800s, it was generally accepted that drones mate with the queen, and the queen lays eggs that have the potential to become either worker bees or drones. The Austrian monk Gregor Mendel, known for his genetic experiments with pea plants, also explored heredity by keeping and breeding bees. However, his bees were housed in a traditional stationary bee house, and he had no control over which drones bred with the queen.

In the early 1900s, apiology researchers had perfected the technique of instrumental insemination of the queen bee. This method made it possible to control the breeding process and has allowed for dramatic advances in the crossing of bees. The practical outcome of this technique for the beekeeper was a well-tempered and productive bee.

Apiology also has provided insight into the diseases and enemies of the honeybee. Extensive research is conducted on mites and their control within the colony. Out of the study of bacterial problems such as foulbrood (a disease that attacks honeybee larvae), modern practices in apiary management have emerged that can control these devastating honeybee enemies. Similarly, apiology provides an understanding of the symbiotic relationships between bees and other insects and other animals.

How It Works

Beekeeping. The process of keeping bees requires an understanding of the biology of bees and the instinctual behaviors they exhibit within their colony. The colony's capacity for honey production, fecundity (potential for reproduction), and tendency to swarm are also factors the beekeeper must manage to maintain the viability of the colony. The beekeeper must be aware of the environmental conditions conducive to pollination and nectar gathering. This requires understanding the blooming cycles of various flora in a region and the weather conditions best suited for bee flying times. Proper application of this knowledge results in stronger and more productive colonies.

Bee Diseases. Diseases within the hive take a variety of forms. Some of these are found exclusively in the brood, weakening the colony by lowering its population. In contrast, some diseases affect the adult bee, destroying the working population. The impact of these maladies can be substantial. Some diseases are the result of bacteria, such as American and European foulbrood; a virus, such as sacbrood; or a parasite, such as nosema disease, also called nosemosis, caused by the microsporidian Nosema apis.

Varroa mites, primarily the species Varroa destructor (and, to a lesser extent, the moderately harmful Varroa jacobsoni), are considered the number-one killer of honeybees globally. These huge ectoparasites live on the outside of the bodies of the bees and the brood. They survive by attaching themselves to the insect and drawing out its hemolymph, a fluid similar to blood. By the end of the 2010s, concerns had grown as some methods traditionally employed by beekeepers to manage the threat no longer seemed to work. During the early 1900s, the acarine mite (Acarapis woodii), also known as the tracheal mite, killed all the black honeybees in England. These mites live in the bee's trachea, cutting off its airway and choking it. Understanding the biology of this mite is the result of extensive research in apiology. Another pest that can wreak havoc on a hive is the greater wax moth or honeycomb moth (Galleria mellonella), which destroys the comb and the brood. Because of the nature of commercial migratory beekeeping, these diseases and pests can spread rapidly as colonies from one apiary come into contact with colonies from other apiaries.

In the late 2000s and 2010s, many studies of honeybee diseases focused on honeybee colony collapse disorder (CCD), in which worker bees disappear from hives for no apparent reason, despite a present queen and immature bees in the hive. Though the exact causes of CCD are unknown, it has been linked to varroa mites and the widespread use of certain pesticides, among other factors. Bee loss continued to be a problem in the next decade. According to the Annual Bee Informed Partnership, beekeepers reported a loss of 45.5 percent of their bees from April 2020 to April 2021. However, this does not necessarily mean the population of honeybees has declined during this time, as beekeepers strive to produce many honeybees. In addition to varroa mites and climate change, drought may have contributed to the loss of honeybees. From 2022 to 2023, the Annual Bee Informed Partnership revealed a 6 percent decrease in colonies producing honey.

Research into the diseases impacting honeybees is crucial to the survival and management of the honeybee. Apiologists identify these diseases by noting symptoms, tracking their spread geographically, and finding methods for their control. Integrated pest management systems using cultural mechanical controls (such as hive modifications) and genetic controls (such as breeding bees resistant to a particular disease) have all emerged from apiologists' research.

Bee Genetics. The domestication of the honeybee has been an ongoing process in societies as far back as those in ancient Egypt. In the twenty-first century, the crossbreeding of honeybees is controlled through scientific methods such as the instrumental insemination of the queen. This requires surgical-grade laboratory instruments, which hold and prepare the queen and the selection of drone bees that contribute semen for the insemination. This breeding technique ensures the traits desired in these bees will be secured.

Techniques such as these have allowed for the quick development of new hybrid strains of the honeybee. Benedictine monk Karl Kehrle, known as Brother Adam, of Buckfast Abbey in England, is best known for his contribution to honeybee breeding. By selecting queens with particular traits and behaviors from around the world, he created what is now known as the Buckfast bee, a strain of honeybee bred for good temper, honey production, and resistance to the acarine mite. Apiology also has genetically produced queens that can combat varroa mites. For example, varroa-sensitive hygiene (VSH) queens have been developed to detect the presence of varroa mites within a colony. Upon detection, they begin to clean the brood chambers of larvae that contain the mite.

Applications and Products

Honey. Honey production is the primary commercial output of the honeybee colony. The National Agricultural Statistics Service (NASS) of the US Department of Agriculture reported that in 2020, honey production was nearly 148 million pounds, a 6 percent decrease from the previous year. By 2023, production reached 139 million pounds. Though this was an 11 percent improvement from 2022, total production was down from 2020.

The floral sources for nectar, the substance from which bees produce honey, are variable and determine the type and color of honey produced. According to the NHB, upwards of three hundred honey varieties can be produced in the United States alone, all having a unique taste and color. Lighter-grade honey and honey still in the comb are consumed directly and usually sold at relatively high prices. Darker-grade honey may be used to sweeten baked goods. Popular floral sources for honey include clover, apple blossom, orange blossom, and huckleberry. Honey is sold in dehydrated form, with fruit flavors added, in comb form with capped and uncapped cells filled with honey, and as organic or nonorganic regular or creamed honey. Aside from its use for humans as the world's oldest sweetener, honey is used to produce paints, adhesives, cosmetics, and medicinal products.

Pollination. A major source of value for the beekeeper and the grower, and hence the public at large, is the immense contribution of pollination that bees make to agriculture. Honeybees are used to pollinate the blossoms of many vegetables and fruits. The distribution of bees to locations timed to coincide with the seasonal arrival of blossoms is known as migratory beekeeping and constitutes a large and important industry. Some research suggests that nearly one-third of a human's diet is composed of products pollinated by insects, and most pollination is accomplished by honeybees.

Medicine from the Hive. Substances coming from the beehive as well as the sting of the bee itself have been considered medicinal products. “Apitherapy” is a collective term referring to applying bee venom and other products from the hive for medical purposes.

Although modern apitherapy takes a scientific approach, it has a rich history in folk medicine. It began as a healing art practiced by the early Greeks, Egyptians, and Chinese. In the 1800s, bee venom therapy was introduced to the United States. Bee venom, taken directly from being stung or by injection with a syringe, is used to treat arthritis, rheumatism, tendinitis, and multiple sclerosis. It has also been used to treat pain from gout, shingles, and other illnesses. It is believed that bee venom therapy can increase circulation of the blood. Apitherapy is also used to decrease inflammation of tissues and to stimulate immune responses.

Royal jelly is the substance made by worker bees to feed potential queen bees within the hive. This substance can be used as a nutritional supplement, to treat open wounds, or as an energy tonic, among other proposed uses. The extraction of royal jelly is a labor-intensive process.

Propolis is a bee-produced reddish-brown substance with the consistency of sticky clay. Bees utilize propolis to bridge over areas within the hive that exceed bee space to seal in the hive. This product has antifungal and antibacterial properties and can be used medicinally.

Bees collect plant pollen as a nutritional source for the colony. For some people, pollen is an allergen. Some studies suggest human consumption of raw pollen from particular locales and the raw honey that contains these pollen spores can build immunity to pollen allergies from the same locales.

Beeswax. The worker bees of the hive secrete wax through glands on the sides of their bodies. In the colony, this wax is used to make a comb, which is the base for building up hexagonally shaped cells. After the advent of the removable comb by Langstroth, frames within the hive contained a foundation made from beeswax with a hexagonal imprint. From this paper-thin wax sheet, the bees produce the honeycomb used in rearing brood and storing food for the colony.

Beeswax finds its way into many common substances and products. It is well known for its use in candle production. In art, melted beeswax is used as a base for batik designs on fabric and in producing encaustic paints. Additionally, beeswax can be carved into figures that are used as models in the production of metal casting.

Many cosmetics, as well as some foods, use beeswax. Beeswax is also used as a seal in tree grafting.

Careers and Course Work

Pursuing a career as an apiologist or a bee researcher requires a formal education including a bachelor of science (BS) degree. A master of science (MS), and sometimes a doctorate (PhD), are required in research and teaching posts at the university level. In all cases, a curriculum that develops the student's ability to establish systematic scientific studies, utilize various computer programs that model environmental and biological conditions, and apply statistics is foundational for a career in apiology.

In the United States, only a select number of colleges offer degrees in apiology or apiculture. A degree in biology or entomology might be the key to employment. Ideally, such academic training would include apiary management or some related field of agriculture. Practical experience is also important and in some cases might pave the way to a related college program or even a career.

Researchers are found in both the private and public sectors. Chemical companies dealing with apiary pesticides and other chemicals seek trained individuals for laboratory and field research. At the federal level, the US Department of Agriculture employs research scientists in their apiary units around the country. Additionally, some states have active apiary programs within their own departments of agriculture. At the state level, the trained apiologist may find duties in a laboratory and the field, inspecting hives.

Depending on the size of the apiary, migratory beekeepers individually maintain the seasonal requirements of their apiary operation and own and operate semi-truck transportation for the movement of their bees. In some cases, transportation is leased out to specialized companies that handle loads of bees. Forklifts and tractors are used to move palletized beehives from flatbed trucks to positions within the field of pollination and back again to flatbed semi-trailers for hauling to the next pollination or nectar-gathering site. Many skills are employed to maintain the apiary. These might include building and repairing bee boxes and frames, “pulling of supers” (boxes loaded with honey), operating honey-harvesting equipment, and working in the bee yard re-queening (introducing a new queen) and checking hives for disease.

Social Context and Future Prospects

Although mason bees, such as the orchard bee (Osmia lignaria), have garnered some attention as alternative pollinators, as a honey producer and pollinator the honeybee reigns supreme. By the end of the 2010s, the impact of honeybee pests such as varroa had exposed the public to the importance of the honeybee in food production and the potential of rising food costs if the demise of the honeybee continued. In 2020, a survey conducted by the Bee Informed Partnership found that beekeepers had reported a loss of approximately 45.5 percent of their honeybee colonies the previous winter, which was considered a record loss. Additionally, a newer threat was under investigation in North America when the first nest of Asian giant hornets was discovered in Washington state in 2020 and several additional hives were discovered in 2021. Because these hornets were known to decimate entire honeybee hives, more monitoring study was needed. Further research into the interaction of bees with pesticides and herbicides as well as other environmental agents continued to be critical research topics, and bee management systems continued to be updated to accommodate environmental changes. Such changes were already being observed in some areas where reestablishing new colonies yearly is common practice. This requires the raising of more bees as well as new queens. Techniques such as instrumental insemination, which speeds the process of genetic modifications outside simple breeding programs, also continued to develop as demand for bees with resistance to pests and diseases increased. Out of economic necessity, research will continue to develop around the honeybee. Its integration into the economic fabric of agriculture is far too great to ignore.

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