Camera Technologies

Summary

Camera technologies are concerned with the design, development, operation, and assessment of film and digital cameras. The field includes traditional photographic imaging as well as measuring and recording instruments in the fields of science, medicine, engineering, surveillance, and cartography. Camera technologies have widespread applications in almost every area of modern life, from digital video cameras used at banks to record information about customers to long-range space voyagers transmitting images back to scientists on Earth for study. Medical applications also have been developed to help surgeons “see” inside the human body and perform minimally invasive laparoscopic surgeries. Camera technologies continue to evolve and change rapidly as they integrate smaller digital technology for use in medicine, entertainment, industry, and science.

Definition and Basic Principles

Camera technologies revolve around the science of capturing images. The field includes the design, development, operation, and assessment of both film and digital camera technologies. Film cameras use traditional photosensitive films to capture images by exposing the films to the right amount of light for the right length of time. Digital and video cameras use an array of photosensitive electronic devices or image sensors to capture images electronically and store them as a series of digital data.

Whether the camera is film, digital, or video, it typically consists of five basic partsthe body, the shutter and shutter-release button, the viewfinder, the camera lens complex, and the film or device that captures the image. The camera's body or casing is made of metal or high-grade plastic that holds the camera's other parts together and provides protection for the camera parts. The shutter captures the image, and the shutter-release button tells the camera to take the picture. The viewfinder is the window that shows the object or objects that compose the image that will be captured by the camera. The camera lens complex is made of several smaller pieces. Camera lens complexes control and create different image effects, such as the ability to zoom, focus, and distortion correction, which combine to control the appearance of the image being captured. The optical lens is the curved piece of glass located on the outside of the lenses that focuses light into the camera and onto the film or digital sensor. The aperture is controlled by an aperture ring, which controls the size of the opening and determines how much light goes into the lens. The aperture size is measured by an f-stop number. The smaller the f-stop, the more light is let in. The final component of the camera is the photographic medium used to capture and store the image, film or digital.

The series of scientific discoveries that preceded the current array of camera technologies began with primitive temporary imaging devices, such as the camera obscura, and evolved to the various cameras using photographic film and digital image capturing. More advanced camera technologies, such as the Hubble Space Telescope and the laparoscope, have greatly furthered medical treatment and scientific knowledge. In both cases, the application of camera technology on a large and small scale allows human operators to direct actions and observe phenomena from a vantage point they cannot achieve with their eyes. The camera-technologies field is integrated in several other fields of science, medicine, engineering, surveillance, and cartography.

Background and History

The term camera comes from camera obscura (Latin for “dark chamber”), an ancient mechanism for projecting images. Camera obscura was a pinhole device used to produce temporary images on flat surfaces in dark rooms. Camera obscura was improved during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, but it was not until 1727, when German physician Johann Heinrich Schulze accidentally created the first photosensitive compound, that the next leap forward in camera technologies occurred.

The early nineteenth century saw the application of Schulze's discovery to create development processes that translated temporarily viewed images to permanent images. By the mid-nineteenth century, direct positive images could be permanently affixed to glass (ambrotypes) or metal (tintypes or ferrotypes). In 1861, another development in camera technologies occurred when Scottish physicist James Clerk Maxwell demonstrated the first color photographs using a system of filters and slide projection called the "color separation method." During this same era, the application of photos to record current events and new areas of the country occurred as photographers captured images taken during the American Civil War and of the West. The next innovation, by English physician Richard Leach Maddox in 1871, paved the way for a revolution in camera technologies with the development of the dry plate process—using an emulsion of gelatin and silver bromide on a glass plate. In the late nineteenth century, companies such as Kodak created commercially available cameras that used film to capture pictures.

In 1907, the first commercial color film became available, and by 1914, the standard modern 24-by-36-millimeter (mm) frame and sprocketed 35 mm movie film were developed. In 1932, the idea of Technicolor for movies arose. In the Technicolor process, three black-and-white negatives were made in the same camera under different filters to create a colorful finished product. The rest of the twentieth century saw continued technical improvements and optimization of the quality and abilities of cameras and films, including development of multilayer color film, “instant” Polaroid film, underwater cameras, auto-focus cameras, the automatic diaphragm as well as introduction of the single-lens reflex (SLR) camera. The SLR camera changed photography by using a semiautomatic moving mirror system that permitted the photographer to see the exact image that would be captured by the film or digital imaging system. In 1972, Texas Instruments was granted the patent for an all-electric camera. In 1982, camera technologies moved forward again with the introduction of Sony's still video camera. The ability to manipulate and transform images was then revolutionized with the 1990 release of Adobe Photoshop, which allowed nonprofessionals to transform photo images from their home computers. Also in the early 1990s, Kodak brought digital cameras to the general population by developing the photo CD system.

The camera phone was introduced in 2000 in Japan. By 2003, more affordable digital cameras were made available and quickly became the dominant image-capturing format, so much so that Kodak ceased production of film cameras in 2004, with Nikon following suit with many of its film cameras as well, in 2006.

How It Works

The core element in camera technology is the capture of a desired image. The capture mechanism varies depending on the type of camera used—film or digital. Film cameras capture images on a sheet of plastic coated with light-sensitive pigments (silver halide salts bonded by gelatin). The pigments contain variable crystal sizes that determine the film's sensitivity, contrast, and resolution. When sufficiently exposed to light or other electromagnetic radiation, the film forms an image. The film develops using specialized chemical processes to create a visible image. Digital cameras use a special sensor or pixelated metal oxide semiconductors (photodiodes) made from silicon to convert the light that falls on them into electrons to capture a desired image and store it in a memory device. The two most common types of sensors used in digital cameras are the charge-coupled device (CCD) and the complementary metal-oxide semiconductor (CMOS). A film recorded with a digital camcorder is captured similarly—saved as a series of frames rather than a single snapshot. In traditional film and digital cameras, the image can be modified using different filters and lenses.

Applications and Products

Astronomy and Physics. Camera technologies have expanded the ability of astronomers to explore the universe far beyond manned space exploration or early telescopes. High-powered telescopes and cameras placed in space have provided photographic evidence of rare astronomical events and features that have resulted in revisions of scientific theory. For example, photographs from the Hubble Space Telescope led to the discovery of dark energy, the hypothetical and unexplained force that seems to be drawing galaxies away from each other. Other unique types of cameras, such as the near-infrared camera Lucifer 1, are powerful tools used to gain spectacular insights into universe phenomena such as star formation.

Medicine. Use of camera technologies has revolutionized medicine. Physicians can use cameras and robots to evaluate and treat distant patients as far away as the astronauts on the space station. Closer to home, medical professionals can use tiny cameras and image-capturing devices in pill form to evaluate the inner workings of their patients' intestines. Many surgeries can be performed laparoscopically, where surgeons use tiny cameras on medical instruments that project images of their patients' bodies. The surgeons then use images and controls attached to consoles to guide their surgical implements within the patients' bodies precisely. A major benefit of surgeries using camera technologies is that they are less invasive—smaller incisions need to be made because manipulators using cameras can be extremely narrow. Surgeries can also be performed remotely using imaging-incorporated technology such as the da Vinci Surgical System to conduct operations such as prostatectomy, cardiac surgery, bariatric surgery, and various forms of neurosurgery.

Journalism. The adage that “a picture is worth a thousand words” summarizes the incredible impact of images in conveying current events, news, and history. Photojournalists using camera technologies add depth to news stories that cannot always be conveyed through words alone. Examples of the impact of photography in journalism include photos of the famine in Ethiopia in the 1980s and the devastation wrought by Hurricane Katrina in 2005 and other natural disasters.

Cartography. The field of cartography has been revolutionized through the use of camera technologies. The ability to take images of the geologic features of the Earth from the ground or from space satellites has increased the accuracy and speed of mapmaking. In fact, companies such as Google have traveled the world to take street-level images of addresses that are then incorporated into maps and directions.

Engineering. Modern camera development has expanded the capabilities of engineering. Using computer technology and images, engineers can create models to predict a variety of outcomes from the impact of a head-on car collision to the minute changes in an electrical circuit. Modern images and specialized image-analysis systems can be used to enhance an observer's ability to make measurements from a large or complex set of images by improving accuracy, objectivity, or processing speed.

Entertainment. Over time, the development of camera technologies has provided entertainment options from early moving pictures to specialized gaming systems. Advances in cameras can give a more realistic or personalized experience. For example, one Wii fitness game has a motion-tracking camera that ensures the user is exercising optimally.

Surveillance and Security. The ability to use camera technologies to track and identify the movements of individuals or intruders often relies heavily on images. Photographic evidence can be used in court as proof of wrongdoing.

Military Operations. Satellite imaging using high-powered cameras has transformed war and peacetime military operations, as the images can provide real-time information on the movement of individuals, troops, and resources. Unmanned drone airplanes with cameras allow the military to explore locations that may be dangerous for humans to enter and provide needed information for military operations. The development of image-based technologies, such as thermal and infrared cameras, to detect changes in geologic features and topography are vital for planning military missions.

Exploration and Rescue. Sending robots and other unmanned machines with camera technologies to places too remote or dangerous for human beings to work in—outer space, great ocean depths, and disaster zones—is an important application. The space exploration robots Voyager 1 and 2 have been traveling through the solar system since 1977, sending back images of distant planets, their moons, and the Earth itself. Images and cameras were also invaluable during the 2010 BP Deepwater Horizon oil spill, as underwater explorer robots equipped with cameras were able to send images of the damaged oil well and reports on how repairs were proceeding. Thermal imaging cameras can also identify regions on fire even as they allow rescue robots to seek out injured humans trapped in fires or under rubble.

Augmented Reality. In the late 2010s, augmented reality (AR) technology picked up pace with renowned investors like Meta (formerly Facebook), Apple, and Google. AR technology works to overlay virtual objects onto the real environment, with applications from flight training and industrial design to entertainment. To achieve this, the AR system requires at least one camera to capture the environment and enough processing power to overlay graphics objects in real time. Some sophisticated AR systems like Microsoft Hololens use multiple camera lenses to better track user movements and depth information.

Autonomous Vehicles. Autonomous vehicles (AV) require a constant environmental data stream to maneuver through the streets safely. AV systems comprise a variety of sensors but rely heavily on strategically placed multiple cameras. Additionally, other sensors, such as radar, work in tandem with the cameras to provide depth and distance information. Some advanced systems also use time-of-flight cameras, also known as LiDAR sensors (Light Detection and Ranging), for accurate depth information.

Careers and Course Work

There are many careers in a variety of industries that directly correlate to camera technologies, and entry-level requirements vary significantly by position. Given the wide spectrum of difference between the careers, a sampling of careers and coursework follows.

The motion picture and video industries provide career options such as cinematographers, camera operators, and gaffers who work together to capture the scripted scenes on film and perform the actual shooting. Formal training can be an asset to film and television production workers, but experience, talent, creativity, and professionalism are usually the most important factors in getting a job. In addition to colleges and technical schools, many independent centers offer training programs on various aspects of filmmaking, such as screenwriting, editing, directing, and acting. For example, the American Film Institute offers directing, production, cinematography, screenwriting, editing, and production design training.

Another career option in camera technology is becoming a photographer. Photographers often specialize in portrait, commercial and industrial, scientific, news, or fine arts photography. Employers seek applicants with a “good eye,” imagination, creativity, and a technical understanding of photography. Photojournalists or industrial or scientific photographers generally need a college degree. Freelance and portrait photographers need technical proficiency gained through a degree, training program, or experience. Many universities, community colleges, and vocational and technical institutes offer photography courses. Introductory courses cover equipment, processes, and techniques. Business and marketing skills are important, which many bachelor's degree programs provide. Art schools offer useful training in photographic design and composition. To begin a career, students or recent graduates may work as an assistant to an experienced photographer.

Still another option is a mapmaker or geographer who works with cameras and images to create maps. Photogrammetrists interpret detailed data from aircraft to produce maps. Most mapmakers work for architectural and engineering services companies, governments, and consulting firms. Remote-sensing specialists and photogrammetrists often have at least a bachelor's degree in geography or a related subject, such as surveying or civil engineering. Classes in statistics, geometry, and matrix algebra also are helpful. Many remote-sensing specialists have degrees in the natural sciences, including forestry, biology, and geology. They often take courses in remote sensing or mapping while earning these degrees. Only some individuals in this field have a bachelor's degree. Those with an associate's degree or a certificate in remote sensing or photogrammetry usually begin as assistants and gain skills on the job. Taking high school or college-level mapping, drafting, and science classes can also lead to assistant jobs. Some employers hire entry-level workers who lack college training but have an aptitude for math and visualizing in three dimensions.

Social Context and Future Prospects

The ability to record and view the world will continue to change as new camera technologies allow individuals and companies to explore further. Future technological innovations in image capturing, size of cameras, storage of images, and viewing of images will change as the industry progresses.

Since the early days of camera technology, cameras have been used to bring the reality of different lives and social issues to the general population through books, exhibits, and newspapers. Early examples include Jacob Riis's 1890 publication How the Other Half Lives, which presented images of tenement life in New York City, and Lewis Hine's commission by the United States National Child Labor Committee to photograph children working in mills in 1909. Additionally, Steve McCurry's 1985 photo of a young Afghan refugee named Sharbat Gula appeared on the cover of National Geographic.

Growing applications of AR, AI, and faster adaptation of autonomous vehicles will propel further enhancements in camera technology and generate employment opportunities in the semiconductor, programming, and technology integration sectors. Developments in 360-degree cameras for vehicles and motorcycles are likely to gain popularity. As the number of content creators across social media platforms increases, better and easier-to-use photo and video editing programs will emerge. As edited photographs improve, technology to authenticate photographs will also be in demand.

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