Bosnia and Herzegovina

Region: Europe

Official language: Bosnian, Croatian, Serbian

Population: 3,798,671 (2024 est.)

Nationality: Bosnian(s), Herzegovinian(s) (noun), Bosnian, Herzegovinian (adjective)

Land area: 51,187 sq km (19,763 sq miles)

Water area: 10 sq km (4 sq miles)

Capital: Sarajevo

National anthem: "Drzavna himna Bosne i Hercegovine" (The National Anthem of Bosnia and Herzegovina), by Dusan Sestic And Benjamin Isovic/Dusan Sestic

National holiday: National Day (Statehood Day), November 25 (1943)

Population growth: -0.25% (2024 est.)

Time zone: UTC +1

Flag: The flag of Bosnia and Herzegovina is solid blue, with a line of white stars (seven whole and two half) crossing the flag diagonally, from the upper hoist (left) to the lower right side. The stars form a border along the longest side of a yellow isosceles triangle. The three points of the triangle represent the Bosniaks, Serbs, and Croats who live in the country. The stars represent Europe, hence the reason they look as if they extend beyond the flag, and the colors were chosen to represent peace and neutrality.

Independence: March 1, 1992 (from Yugoslavia; referendum for independence completed on March 1, 1992; independence declared on March 3, 1992)

Government type: parliamentary republic

Suffrage: 18 years of age, 16 if employed; universal

Legal system: civil law system; Constitutional Court review of legislative acts

Bosnia and Herzegovina is a parliamentary republic in southeast Europe, bordered by Croatia, Montenegro, and Serbia. Long a crossroads between east and west, its culture and multiethnic character is the result of a stream of migrants and invaders. The country's territory was part of Yugoslavia prior to the country's breakup in 1992 and descent into civil war along ethnic lines.

From the end of World War II until it declared its independence in the early 1990s, Bosnia and Herzegovina was one of six republics of the Yugoslav Federation. The dissolution of this communist republic led to a brutal civil war that lasted from 1992 to 1995. Though peace has prevailed since then, the country remains divided along ethnic and religious lines.

Note: unless otherwise indicated, statistical data in this article is sourced from the CIA World Factbook, as cited in the bibliography.

People and Culture

Population: Bosnia and Herzegovina's population suffered setbacks in the early 1990s, with an estimated 100,000 killed during the civil war and approximately 300,000 displaced. In 2024 the life expectancy at birth was an estimated 75.5 years for men and 81.6 years for women. Bosnia and Herzegovina's HDI value for 2022 is 0.779— which put the country in the High human development category—positioning it at 80 out of 193 countries and territories.

The population consists of Bosniaks, Croats, and Serbians, all of whom belong to the larger South Slav ethnic category. When Bosnia was part of the Yugoslav Federation, the three groups lived in neighboring enclaves. Since the end of the civil war, the country has been divided into two autonomous political entities: the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, which is located in the western and central part of the country and comprises 51 percent of the country’s total territory; and the Republika Srpska (Bosnia Serb Republic), which is located in the north and east and comprises the rest of the territory. A third administrative entity, the Brčko District, is located in the northeast.

Approximately 50.1 percent of the population is Bosniak, 30.8 percent is Serbian, and 15.4 percent is Croat. Jews and Roma each account for a small percentage of the total (2013 est.). The term Bosniak refers to the country's Muslim population.

In 2023, 50.3 percent of the population were living in urban areas. Sarajevo, with a population of approximately 346,000 people (2023 estimate), is the largest city. Other large cities are Banja Luka (the administrative center of Republika Srpska), Zenica, Tuzla, Mostar, and Bihać. Before the civil war, the cities often had multiethnic composition. Now, however, their nearly homogenous populations are dictated by the part of the country in which they are located.

Bosnian, Croatian, and Serbian are all official languages and variants of Serbo-Croat, a South Slavic language. Bosnian and Croatian are rendered in a modified Latin script; Serbian is rendered in the Cyrillic script. The issue of language has become confused, with interpretation of the linguistic differences deriving from one’s political perspective.

The area now known as Bosnia and Herzegovina was once noteworthy for its religious tolerance and predominantly secular character. The hostilities that fueled the civil war seriously harmed the notion of tolerance and inspired an assertion of religious identity. In general, the Bosniaks have been Sunni Muslim since the fifteenth century, the Serbs are predominantly Serbian Orthodox, and the Croatians are Roman Catholic. There are also small groups of Protestants and Jews.

• Indigenous People: The three main ethnic subgroups in Bosnia and Herzegovina all have long histories in the region. When the country was part of the larger Yugoslav framework, a common South Slav identity was stressed. With the dissolution of that framework, however, the identity also dissolved and each group asserted its interests. Croats and Bosniaks formed an alliance, backed by Croatia, while the Serbs were backed by Serbia. The ensuing hostilities devastated the country’s infrastructure and led to great loss of life, particularly among the Bosniaks and Serbs.

Bosnian Roma, who have had small communities in the region for centuries, also experienced extensive hardship during the civil war. Targets of racial violence, many of them fled abroad and now exist in political limbo, with neither the right of return nor political asylum in their host countries.

There is also a small population of Jews whose history in the area dates back to their expulsion from Spain in the fifteenth century and their resettlement by invitation of the Ottoman government.

Education: The civil war devastated Bosnia and Herzegovina’s educational system, which had been well developed. An estimated 70 percent of schools were destroyed, damaged, or used for military purposes, and educators were often drafted into military service.

Since then a great degree of normalcy has returned, though not to prewar levels. Children between the ages of six and fifteen receive free, compulsory education. Many of them continue on to secondary school, which is likewise free. There are numerous institutes of higher learning throughout the country, including the universities of Sarajevo, Tuzla, Banja Luka, and Mostar. The University of Sarajevo and the University of Mostar are the two largest universities in the country.

Health Care: The country’s health care system underwent similar stresses and breakdown because of the civil war. Moreover, it was forced to deal with war-related injuries and large numbers of internally displaced people.

Before the war, the government extended free and universal health care. Today, each of the two major administrative zones is responsible for the health care of its respective residents, and free and universal health care has become difficult to maintain at all but the most basic levels.

Food: The cuisine of Bosnia and Herzegovina was heavily influenced by Turkish traditions during the Ottoman era. Grilled meats are common, as are layered pies filled with meat, spinach, or cheese.

Japrak is a dish of grape leaves stuffed with rice and meat, and bosanki lonac is a soup prepared with cabbage and meat. Sweets include baklava, and coffee is the drink of choice and an important component of social rituals.

Arts & Entertainment: Many cultural institutions, such as the national library, mosques, and churches, were destroyed or damaged during the civil war. Rebuilding has been slow but steady. One of the most famous buildings in Sarajevo is the Gazi Husrev-Bey Mosque, Bosnia and Herzegovina’s largest Islamic structure; it dates from the sixteenth century.

The Yugoslav literary tradition, as written in Serbo-Croatian with some regional variations, was once a shared enterprise. Particularly since the end of the war, however, it has been considerably politicized and thus shares far less common ground. Ivo Andric, Nobel Laureate in 1961, for example, is now considered to be anti-Muslim by some Bosniaks. His most widely translated novel is The Bridge over the Drina (translated 1959). Among other important modern authors are Alma Lazarevska, Mak Dizdar, and Aleksandar Hemon. Several of them have taken their country’s upheavals as their subject matter.

Emir Kusturica, Bosnia’s most famous director, has courted controversy with his bold, madcap films often centered on contemporary events. They include When Father Was Away on Business (1985), In the Time of the Gypsies (1989), Underground (1995), and Life Is a Miracle (2004). Danis Tanovic’s No Man’s Land (2001), Oscar-winner for best foreign film, also confronts the war. World cinema is annually showcased at the Sarajevo Film Festival, which was founded in 1995.

Basketball and football are the country’s most popular sports, and professional athletic events draw wide and strong support from the populace. Skiing is popular during winter on the country’s mountain slopes.

Holidays: Bosnians celebrate many Muslim, Catholic, and Orthodox holidays. Secular holidays include Independence Day, which commemorates the country’s split from Yugoslavia (March 1), and National Day, also called Statehood Day (November 25), which is only observed in the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina.

Environment and Geography

Topography: Bosnia and Herzegovina generally has a mountainous terrain. It is landlocked except for a 20-kilometer (13-mile) strip of coastline along the Adriatic Sea. The interior of the country has flat, fertile areas.

Mountains and valleys dominate the landscape along the border with Croatia and in the southern portion of the country. Mount Maglic, near the border with Serbia, is the highest point (2,386 meters/7,828 feet). This range is part of the Dinaric Alps and is composed mainly of a limestone strata called karst, which forms many caves and valleys. Karst accounts for nearly 35 percent of the country’s terrain.

The Sava and the Bosna, from which the country takes half of its name, are important rivers, both flowing north. The Sava supports several ports along its course and feeds the northern Sava Plain. The Neretva River flows into Croatia and drains into the Adriatic Sea. The Miljacka, a tributary of the Bosna, flows through Sarajevo.

Natural Resources: Bosnia and Herzegovina has large deposits of metals and minerals. Manganese, zinc, copper, cobalt, lead, iron ore, chromite, bauxite, coal, gypsum, and salt are all present. Significant portions of the country are heavily wooded, much of the interior has dark, fertile soil, and the rivers yield some hydropower.

Inadequate urban sanitation, air pollution from the industrial sector, and deforestation are all environmental problems that the country has been facing. Not only did the war extensively damage the infrastructure, it left an estimated two million unexploded landmines planted across the country, in both populated and unpopulated areas. The country continues to face serious challenges related to landmines remaining from the war.

Plants & Animals: Bosnia and Herzegovina has two vegetation zones: the Euro-Siberian and the Mediterranean. Just under half of the country is forested, some of it with primeval growth. Tree species include beech, pine, evergreen, oak, spruce, and chestnut. The mountains are also lush with flowering plants, with an estimated 3,700 growing in the country. The karst regions support typical Mediterranean shrubs as well as many wild flowers.

The forests, inhabited by deer, chamois, gray bears, wolves, and wildcats, are especially rich in wildlife. Hawks, vultures, and eagles are common birds.

Climate: The climate of Bosnia and Herzegovina is a mixture of the Mediterranean and the continental. In the south and along the western border, the weather is moderated by winds from the Adriatic Sea, giving the area mild, wet winters and warm summers. Further inland the continental temperature prevails. In the flat, lower regions, winters are cold and summers warm.

Snow occurs at the higher elevations, where winters are long and summers brief. Temperatures for Sarajevo average –1° Celsius (30° Fahrenheit) in January and 20° Celsius (68° Fahrenheit) in July, which is typical for continental areas at lower elevations.

The entire country is prone to powerful earthquakes such as the one that devastated the northern city of Banja Luka in 1969.

As was the case across the world, Bosnia and Herzegovina had also experienced effects of climate change, including severe flooding and increased temperatures.

Economy

Bosnia and Herzegovina’s economy was shattered by the end of the war. The industrial sector and infrastructure were severely damaged, inflation was out of control, and unemployment figures were staggering. Since then, the situation has improved significantly and the gross domestic product (GDP) has increased steadily, due in part to the billions of dollars the country has received in international aid. The country's economy continues to recover from postconflict conditions, although the global financial crisis caused a significant downturn in 2008 and curtailed foreign investments.

The country’s official unemployment rate was an estimated 10.42 percent in 2023, which does not account for workers in the gray (secret, but not undocumented) economy and therefore may be higher than the actual unemployment rate. In 2023 the gross domestic product (GDP) stood at US$64.104 billion, with GDP per capita estimated at US$20,100, which again does not reflect the underground economy.

Industry: Before the war, much of Yugoslavia’s heavy industry was concentrated in the republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina. The sector included oil refineries, arms factories, manufacturing, and metallurgy. These industries were largely ruined during the war, and production plummeted by 80 percent between 1992 and 1995. Industries are, moreover, concentrated within the Muslim-Croat area of the country, putting Bosnian Serbs at a disadvantage. Major industries included wooden furniture, textiles, appliances, minerals, and oil refining.

Agriculture: Agriculture accounts for a relatively small portion of GDP; the most fertile land lies within Serb areas. Products include wheat, corn, fruits, vegetables, and livestock. Cattle, sheep, and goats are the most commonly raised animals.

Tourism: Severe flooding that took place in spring 2014 prompted officials from the World Tourism Organization to call for tourists to visit places and establishments that were not affected by the floods in order to help the industry continue to thrive. Bosnia and Herzegovina had struggled to shed its war-torn image and encourage tourists to return. It was a slow process, hampered by a seriously damaged infrastructure, landmines, erratic services, and some hostility toward the West in certain portions of the country.

While the sector experienced a decline in 2020 due to the onset of the global COVID-19 pandemic, the World Travel and Tourism Council (WTTC) reported that in 2022 the total contribution of travel and tourism accounted for 10 percent of Bosnia and Herzegovina's total employment and 7.4 percent of its GDP.

Tourist attractions include Sarajevo, Mostar, and the mountain ranges that offer winter skiing and summer hiking. The country also offers several alternative forms of tourism. Many tourists, for example, are interested in the effects of a disastrous civil war and the amount of reconstruction that has occurred. Others visit the village of Medjugorje in southwest Bosnia and Herzegovina, an important place of pilgrimage for Catholics.

The medieval gravestones, called stecci, are another draw. An estimated 60,000 are scattered across the country, many of them decorated with floral motifs and various human and animal figures.

Government

A new constitution was adopted as part of the 1995 Dayton Accord, which formally brought the civil war to a close. It asserts that the country is composed of the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina and the Republika Srpska. Each of these entities exercises wide powers over their respective areas, whereas the central government manages international affairs. The current arrangement has not proven very effective, but attempts to unite the three ethnic groups into a more coordinated coalition have failed.

The executive branch is overseen by a three-member joint presidency. Each of the country’s ethnic groups elects a president by popular vote to four-year terms, and the presidency chairpersonship rotates between them every eight months. The chair of the Council of Ministers is the head of government and is nominated by the presidency and confirmed by the House of Representatives.

The bicameral legislature, called the Parliamentary Assembly, consists of the House of Peoples and the state-level House of Representatives. Each of the three major ethnic groups is represented by five members in the House of Peoples; the forty-two directly elected members of the House of Representatives are also proportional, with twenty-eight seats allocated to the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina and fourteen seats to the Serb Republic. Members of both houses serve four-year terms. In addition to its legal duties, the legislature approves the ministerial selections.

The BiH Constitutional Court is comprised of two members from each ethnic group plus three members appointed by the European Court of Human Rights. They are responsible for solving disputes between the two entities and for interpreting the constitution. Each entity has its own court system for internal judicial operations.

The Court of Bosnia and Herzegovina, or Court of BiH, has forty-four national judges and seven international judges serving in three divisions: administrative, appellate, and criminal (including war crimes).

Interesting Facts

• The 1984 Winter Olympics were held in Sarajevo.
• The reconstruction of the Stari Most, an iconic sixteenth-century bridge in Mostar that was destroyed during the Bosnian War, cost US$15.4 million.
• Bosnian cartoonist Dušan Vukotić was the first non-American director to win the Academy Award for best animated short film, which he received for his 1961 short "Surogat" ("Ersatz").
• The US-based fast-food chain Burger King opened its first location in Bosnia and Herzegovina in 2023.

Bibliography

"Bosnia and Herzegovina." The World Bank, 2024, data.worldbank.org/country/bosnia-and-herzegovina. Accessed 29 Jan. 2025.

"Bosnia and Herzegovina." The World Factbook, Central Intelligence Agency, 21 Jan. 2025, www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/bosnia-and-herzegovina/. Accessed 29 Jan. 2025.

Bosnia-Herzegovina: 2023 Annual Research: Key Highlights. World Travel and Tourism Council, 2023, assets-global.website-files.com/6329bc97af73223b575983ac/645a739a87e3ea0485767d4b‗BosniaHerzegovina2023‗.pdf. Accessed 1 Nov. 2023.

Human Development Report 2022. United Nations Development Programme, 13 Mar. 2024, hdr.undp.org/system/files/documents/global-report-document/hdr2021-22pdf‗1.pdf. Accessed 29 Jan. 2025.