Design

Design is the development of a plan or process to achieve or create something. Designs include objects, events, and many other elements of daily life—anything that is created by humankind. Successful design is appealing to its intended audience for its appearance and usefulness. However, it must take into account practical matters, such as materials and engineering concerns. An attractive and innovative structure, for example, must be constructed to meet safety standards. Examples of design arenas include business and organization strategies; structures, such as buildings and bridges; websites; publications; interiors; vehicles; landscapes; tools, ranging from paper clips to robotic arms; clothing and footwear; and product packaging. While early designs were likely achieved through trial and error—people simply used what they had and adopted changes that seemed to work better—effort and expertise may be required for modern design efforts. An organization may employ a number of teams to research, provide input and expertise, and develop various aspects of a design project.

Background

Archaeologists are unsure when early humans developed creativity. The earliest tools were likely spears and digging sticks made of wood, bone, and other materials. Humans used stone tools that did not vary for about 1.6 million years. The tools they crafted were designed with a purpose—to help them survive by performing tasks better than they could with their bare hands—even though tool design remained static.

Between forty thousand and ninety thousand years ago, during the Upper Paleolithic period, humans began painting cave walls and creating items with shell beads. They carved flutes and figures. Stone tools also began to evolve. This development indicates that as the human brain became larger, humans developed the ability to form ideas and design and create with a purpose.

Anthropologists call the human ability to take an idea and further develop and refine it cultural ratcheting. Design frequently involves looking at old ideas and finding new solutions. Anthropologists believe that as society developed and people lived in larger groups, the chances of individuals within the group having the ability to improve tools and processes increased.

Some aspects of design changed the course of human history. In agriculture, for example, early humans used primitive tools such as digging sticks and stone axes to cultivate crops. Eventually, a simple plow was created to dig more efficiently. As animals were domesticated, humans altered the plow to use animals to pull it. The development of metal tools allowed people to design a better tool for carving into soil. All of these design changes improved human living conditions. Humans who successfully raised crops had more and better food, which allowed them to develop their brains and continue to advance ideas.

While humans were changing physical aspects of their lives, they were also developing communication. Early pictographs likely developed from gestures and sounds people used to communicate. Humans designed writing systems to convey messages.

While early design was largely practical, eventually people became concerned about aesthetics. Early shelters gave way to decorative structures. Simple body coverings were replaced by clothing the wearer deemed attractive. By the third millennium BCE, civil design was evident in urban planning, such as the prehistoric city of Mohenjo Daro in Pakistan. By the late eighteenth century, design was recognized as a practice.

Overview

Design is an element of all human creations and plans. It encompasses practical and aesthetic concerns. In many cases, design begins with a need and desire to address the need. Designers may require expertise to help define the problem and desired goal.

In the visual arts, elements of design include color, direction, form, line, point, shape, space, texture, and value. Visual art design also includes design principles, such as balance, contrast, dominance, emphasis, gradation, harmony, movement, pattern, perspective, proportion, repetition, rhythm, unity, and variety. A skilled artist employs a variety of techniques to achieve an effect through drawing, painting, sculpting, carving, or molding. Many of these elements and principles are useful in other fields. For example, someone designing the interior of a car should consider placement of instruments from both an aesthetic perspective and a practical consideration. While the driver must be able to view the speedometer with ease, the designer may choose fonts or other elements to make the display visually pleasing.

Civil, transportation, and architectural design often involve engineering. Engineering addresses the practical elements of design. Computer-aided design (CAD) is increasingly central to the design process, allowing designers to create 2D and 3D models of projects. CAD also offers the benefit of simulating situations to test a design and evaluate its performance. Civil and transportation designers draft and scale drawings and maps, such as those used for the construction of bridges and roads. Civil engineers also design cities and other elements of human civilization. Designs take into consideration the community and human experiences, for example, by integrating green spaces and wide, walkable sidewalks into an urban environment. Access to highways and rivers should be designed for the benefit of citizens and industry. Civil engineers must also consider future expansion in a design and plan where and how growth will occur.

Universal design, or the design of items to be accessible to everyone, arose late in the twentieth century. The movement seeks to address communications, environments, and products to ensure no one is barred from access because of a disability or health condition. Universal design is prominent in building design and redesign. It is also important to infrastructure, such as sidewalks and streets to ensure all individuals can safely travel.

Business model design or strategy involves evaluation of a market and goals. Managers must consider both short-term and long-term goals. In designing a business model, one should consider the value of what the business has to offer; test it in the market; seek feedback and advice; and plan, execute, and evaluate a limited rollout.

Most businesses and organizations design a corporate structure. This may include departments, which have specific goals and responsibilities and may work with other departments on the same level or may function in a hierarchy. A small business may need only a few departments, such as finance, human resources, and production. The management and executive teams must be defined and their responsibilities and authority clearly stated. Job descriptions at all levels should include their places in the hierarchy of the organization and expectations for employees. A well-designed organizational structure helps members perform at their best.

Bibliography

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