Structural racism

Structural racism examines racism and racist behaviors on a societal level. It applies to the ways that specific institutions, including education, health care, housing, and the law, expand and reinforce patterns of discrimination. The reinforcement can be direct or indirect and may include the unequal distribution of resources and opportunities. Some scholars have described structural racism as particularly problematic because it has become ingrained into key aspects of society that even the most well-intentioned individuals do not recognize that they are supporting or contributing to the racist outcomes. This invisible nature of structural racism adds an additional challenge for those attempting to right its wrongs and differentiates it from other forms of racism.

The embeddedness of structural racism into institutions and policies has created well-established advantages for White individuals in the United States and left members of some other races fighting for equal and equitable services. Structural racism is often used interchangeably with the term systemic racism, although some advocates make subtle differences between the two. Though some examples of structural racism that were openly practiced in the past have been stopped, their impact continues into the twenty-first century. Activists note that eliminating explicit forms of racism, like racial slurs, will not eradicate racism. Instead, they argue that configurations and policies that support structural racism must be deconstructed so that power does not lie solely in the hands of White individuals.

Background

Before the Middle Ages, history reveals no clearcut examples of racism or the explicit need for one group to dominate another because of race or ethnicity. George Fredrickson writes that in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, many in Europe began associating Jews with the devil and witchcraft. This may have been the first example of racism. As time passed and Europeans began coming into contact with darker-skinned people from what are now Africa, Asia, and the Americas, they formed opinions about them. Some people turned to the Bible to justify enslavement, arguing that the dark-skinned people did not believe in the Christian God or deriding their ancestry. White people passed laws limiting the rights of people of color. Darker-skinned individuals were often treated as less than human.

Early forms of racism, from slavery to segregation, are often classified as forms of traditional racism. Traditional racism refers to the explicit denial of rights through actions or words. This includes using racist language or slurs. Because of its explicit nature, traditional racism is easier to see, unlike more subtle forms of racism. Institutional racism refers to not giving people of color access to goods, services, and opportunities that exist for others in a particular society. Such racism is relegated to certain organizations and institutions. Examples include banning certain hairstyles in schools or areas not having access to certain healthy foods. It could also include a job candidate being eliminated because their name doesn’t fit the organization’s culture. Racism also exists at the individual level. This includes holding ideologies and beliefs that impact how people of color are treated. Laughing at a racist joke is an example of individual racism. Because of its personal nature, individual racism can be difficult for people to discuss.

Overview

Structural racism is much less obvious than traditional racism. Structural racism refers to ways of thinking that over time have become embedded into everyday life. For example, studies have found many cases in which police officers have given tickets to people of color but only warnings to White people for the same infractions. Because structural racism is so embedded into culture and societal behaviors, even after the seemingly racist action or regulation is removed, its consequences can be felt years into the future. In the 1930s, the federal government created the Home Owners’ Loan Corporation to increase home ownership during and after the Great Depression. It practiced redlining and flagged communities with large Black populations. Members of the corporation literally drew red lines on maps to note areas- as risky investments. The federal government denied loans to potential home buyers based on where they lived. The process decreased Black families’ access to home-buying opportunities and increased the profits to lenders willing to invest in these areas.

Although redlining stopped with the Housing Act of 1968, its impact exists more than half a century later, particularly when examining what resources are available in areas. A correlation exists between geographic areas inhabited by people of color and fewer (or unequal) educational opportunities. A lack of quality medical care and detrimental, long-term medical effects also remain in formerly redlined areas. The New England Journal of Medicine noted higher rates of cancer, postpartum depression, tuberculosis, and other health issues among residents of once-redlined areas.

In June of 2021, the Othering & Belonging Institute at the University of California, Berkeley, released The Roots of Structural Racism Project, which is a result of a multiple-year exploration into racial segregation in the United States. The project contains, among other information, an interactive map that plots cities throughout the United States and designates them as highly segregated, low-medium segregated, or racially integrated. From there, correlations can be drawn by comparing health care, socioeconomic, crime, and educational statuses. Findings of the report echo what other scholars and advocates have stated, including that poverty rates are highest in segregated communities of color (21 percent) as opposed to segregated White neighborhoods (7 percent). As of 2010, 83 percent of neighborhoods that were redlined in the past were considered highly segregated communities of color. Events in the twenty-first century have highlighted police brutality against people of color and led to more calls for accountability and change in policing. The COVID-19 pandemic revealed the inadequacies in medical care and trust in many communities of color.

Bibliography

“Being Antiracist.” National Museum of African American History & Culture, nmaahc.si.edu/learn/talking-about-race/topics/being-antiracist. Accessed 13 June 2023.

Fredrickson, George M. “The Historical Origins and Development of Racism,” PBS, 2003, www.pbs.org/race/000‗About/002‗04-background-02-01.htm. Accessed 13 June 2023.

Glover, Julian, and Ken Miguel. “What Are Structural, Institutional and Systemic Racism?” ABC 7, 9 July 2020, abc7news.com/systemic-racism-definition-structural-institutionalized-what-is/6292530/. Accessed 13 June 2023.

“How to Explain Structural, Institutional and Systemic Racism,” USC Suzanne Dworak-Peck School of Social Work, 26 Oct. 2021, msw.usc.edu/mswusc-blog/how-to-explain-structural-institutional-and-systemic-racism/. Accessed 13 June 2023.

Kijakazi, Jiolo, Steven K. Brown, Donnie Charleston, and Charmaine Runes. “What Would It Take to Overcome the Damaging Effects of Structural Racism and Ensure a More Equitable Future?” Urban Next50, May 2019, next50.urban.org/question/structural-racism#structural-racism-promising-solutions. Accessed 13 June 2023

Menendian, Stephen, Samir Gambhir, and Arthur Gailes. “The Roots of Structural Racism Project.” University of California Berkeley Othering & Belonging Institute, 21 June 2021, belonging.berkeley.edu/roots-structural-racism. Accessed 13 June 2023.

“What Is Structural Racism?” American Medical Association, 9 Nov. 2021, www.ama-assn.org/delivering-care/health-equity/what-structural-racism. Accessed 13 June 2023.