Ronald L. Akers (criminologist)
Ronald L. Akers is a prominent criminologist known for his influential theory of social learning, which has significantly shaped understanding of deviant and criminal behavior. Born in 1939 in New Albany, Indiana, Akers was the first in his family to earn a college degree, paving his way into sociology and criminology. His academic journey led him to develop the differential association-reinforcement theory in collaboration with Robert L. Burgess, merging elements of operant conditioning with sociological insights. This theory posits that behavior is learned through social interactions and the reinforcement of criminal conduct over conforming behavior.
Akers further refined this theory into what is now known as social learning theory, introduced in his 1973 book "Deviant Behavior: A Social Learning Approach." This theory encompasses four key elements: differential association, differential reinforcement, imitation, and definitions, which collectively explain how individuals may engage in deviant behavior based on their social environments. Throughout his career, Akers held various academic positions, contributing extensively to the fields of criminology and sociology, and earning accolades for his work. His theories have also impacted related fields, such as mental health and substance abuse prevention, making him a highly cited author and respected figure in criminology.
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Ronald L. Akers (criminologist)
Criminologist
- Born: January 7, 1939
- Place of Birth: New Albany, Indiana
Significance: Ronald L. Akers's theory of social learning has become one of the most influential behavioral models in the field of criminology. Developed from his differential association-reinforcement theory, formulated with colleague Robert L. Burgess, Akers outlined a new approach to deviant and criminal behavior that included elements from the field of sociology.
Background
Ronald L. Akers was born in 1939 in New Albany, Indiana, a small factory town situated along the Ohio River. He was raised in a working-class family, in which he was taught to work hard, get a good education, and put his faith in God. Akers wanted to pursue a career as a high school social studies teacher. He became the first in his family to obtain a college degree, earning his bachelor's degree in secondary education from Indiana State University in 1960.
During his undergraduate studies, Akers became interested in the connection between social class and crime. After graduating, he turned down a job opportunity at an Indiana high school to pursue a master's degree in sociology at Kent State University. He focused his master's thesis on this link between class and crime and later extended his research into his doctoral studies at the University of Kentucky. Akers's doctoral research had a broader concentration than his previous courses of study, combining the sociology of law with the field of criminology. His dissertation examined how political power influenced the passage of professional practice and licensure legislation. He earned his doctorate degree in sociology in 1966.
Akers entered the fields of sociology and criminology during a time of many new theoretical developments. As a result, he received an education in both the old and new discourse of criminology theory. After earning his doctorate, Akers took a position as an assistant professor of sociology at the University of Washington. His time in Washington was an important phase in Akers's life. He met several influential colleagues during his tenure who introduced him to a range of sociological theories that helped chart the course of his academic career.
Life's Work
Upon his arrival at the University of Washington, Akers met Robert L. Burgess, a behavioral sociologist with training in operant conditioning theory. This psychological theory holds that human behavior and learning is controlled by an external reward and punishment system meant to strengthen or diminish a specific behavior, and it is dependent on environmental stimuli. Sociological theory, however, holds that humans have the capacity to both influence and be influenced by their environment through their social interactions. Through a series of discussions, Akers and Burgess came to see compatibility between theories in sociology and psychological behaviorism as they applied to criminal behavior. Together, the pair combined their knowledge of both fields to develop a new theory of criminology called the differential association-reinforcement theory of criminal behavior, a theory Akers later expanded on in his social learning theory.
Akers and Burgess presented their newly formulated theory in an article published in the journal Social Problemsin 1966. The theory joined elements of operant conditioning theory with the sociological theory of differential association—which suggested that human interaction drives a person's understanding of criminal behavior. The authors' goal was to introduce behaviorist rhetoric into sociology, an approach that received both praise and criticism from the sociological community. Akers and Burgess argued that an understanding of criminal behavior is primarily shaped by the encouragement or discouragement of significant people in a person's life, such as friends and family. If criminal behavior is rewarded—or differentially reinforced—over conforming behavior, an individual will learn to partake in criminal conduct over law-abiding behavior.
Although Burgess moved on to other academic interests after the publication of his and Akers's theory, Akers continued to delve into the concept. He accepted a position at Florida State University's School of Criminology in 1972, where he began to reformulate his and Burgess's theory. He believed it could be applied to a wider range of deviant behaviors. During the next few years, Akers would tweak the components of the differential association-reinforcement theory of criminal behavior to form his newly designated social learning theory. The term first appeared in Akers's book Deviant Behavior: A Social Learning Approach, published in 1973. The textbook focused on the sociology of deviance and examined several types of deviant behavior through the combined lens of behavioral theory, differential association theory, and differential association-reinforcement theory. Social learning theory modified Akers's original theory into the context of several behavioral learning principles. Social learning theory also addressed the criticisms of differential association theory's influence over Akers and Burgess's theory by adding a more cognitive learning–based approach, which factored in an individual's learning skills and his or her ability to process, analyze, retain, and relate to information.
Akers's theory of social learning of deviant behavior involves four basic elements: differential association, differential reinforcement, imitation, and definitions. With these elements in mind, the probability of an individual's participation in deviant behavior is increased in several ways. A person is more likely to engage in criminal behavior if he or she differentially associate with people involved in criminal behavior and those associates apply positive definitions to the behavior. Amount of exposure also plays a role in an increased probability of deviant behavior, as does the presence of reward versus punishment.
After two years with Florida State University, Akers took a job as a professor at the University of Iowa's Department of Sociology. He continued working on his social learning theory, and he was able to bolster its credibility with the help of the Boys Town Center for the Study of Youth Development. One of the center's studies involved examining how youth alcohol and drug use influenced deviant behavior. Findings strongly supported Akers's social learning theory, and the study gave him more access to public funding.
Akers changed schools again in 1980, taking a position as both chairperson and professor at the University of Florida's Department of Sociology. By this point, his social learning theory had gained wide recognition as one of the leading theories on criminal and deviant behavior. The theory was utilized and cited in numerous studies over the next several decades. Akers continued his work at the university throughout the rest of his career, becoming the director of the school's Center for Studies in Criminology and Law while continuing to teach sociology and criminology. He was awarded the Edwin H. Sutherland Award from the American Society of Criminology in 1988. Alongside his research and teaching duties, Akers published several books related to his work, held a number of leadership positions in various professional societies, worked as a consultant for several respected scientific agencies, and served as a mentor to graduate students. In 2014, he became professor emeritus at the university.
Impact
Akers's theory of social learning has been highly influential in the fields of sociology and criminology. His work has also benefitted other fields that deal with social behavior, such as mental health. Social learning theory has been used to improve treatment and prevention programs related to deviant behaviors like drug and alcohol abuse. Throughout his career, Akers has earned a number of honors for his academic contributions. His extensive research and numerous publications have made him one of the most cited authors in the field of criminology.
Bibliography
Akers, Ronald L., and Christine S. Sellers. Criminological Theories: Introduction, Evaluation, and Application. 8th ed., Oxford UP, 2020.
Akers, Ronald L., et al. "Boys Town Study of Youth Development (ICPSR 34595)," University of Michigan Institute for Social Research. www.icpsr.umich.edu/icpsrweb/ICPSR/studies/34595. Accessed 1 Apr. 2017.
The Encyclopedia of Theoretical Criminology, Volume 1. Edited by J. Mitchell Miller, Wiley Blackwell, 2014.
Sellers, Christine S., and L. Thomas Winfree, Jr. "Akers, Ronald L.: Social Learning Theory." Washington State University, faculty.washington.edu/matsueda/courses/401D/Readings/Akers.pdf. Accessed 1 Apr. 2017.
"Vita—Ronald L. Akers." University of South Florida, www.usf.edu/cbcs/criminology/documents/curriculum-vitae/r-akers.pdf. Accessed 1 Apr. 2017.