Mountaineering

Mountaineering is the sport of climbing mountains. It is different from rock climbing because the latter may be done on cliffs of any size, while mountaineering generally involves conquering a mountain, which may involve scaling a large variety of terrain, including ice and rock. Mountaineering frequently involves climbing as well as hiking.

In Europe, the sport is often called Alpinism, because it was first associated with the Alps, a range of mountains that stretches through Italy, Switzerland, Germany, and Austria, and into the Baltic peninsula. The first documented climb of the Alps took place during the fourteenth century, although the practice is far older. Evidence indicates people were climbing mountains more than 5,000 years ago.

Many modern mountaineers attempt Nepal's Mount Everest, which they regard as a challenge and goal in the sport. Other favorite climbs include Kilimanjaro in Tanzania, the Matterhorn in Switzerland, and Denali (Mount McKinley) in Alaska.

Background

Numerous references in ancient writings, including the Old Testament of the Bible, mention people climbing mountains. Early efforts were most likely undertaken to get information about a region, to seek out spirits or deities, or to get a better view of the skies.

A mummy found in the Alps in 1991 had little in the way of equipment that would have helped him cross the mountains. Ötzi, also known as the Ice Man, died on the mountain about 5,300 years ago and remained encased in ice until he was discovered. Researchers believe he was a hunter. Ötzi's discovery proves that people did climb and cross the high peaks thousands of years ago.

King Philip V of Macedon allegedly climbed a peak in the Balkan range about 197 BCE, but accounts provided by the king and his companions were questioned—they claimed to see both the Adriatic and Black Seas, but the Adriatic Sea is not visible from the peaks in the region. Emperor Hadrian of Rome climbed Italy's Mount Etna (10,900 feet or 3,329 meters) in 126 CE to see the view.

The first person to reach the top of the Alps and write about his experiences is Petrarch. The fourteenth-century Italian poet wrote about climbing Mont Ventoux in Provence, southern France. He said he had climbed Ventoux—the highest mountain in the region at 6,266 feet (1,910 meters)—specifically to see the view. This distinction, climbing to reach the top rather than as part of a journey elsewhere, led many to dub Petrarch the father of Alpinism.

Many philosophers and scientists of the eighteenth century became interested in mountains, in part because of the glaciers in some ranges. A sporting aspect of mountain climbing developed when a scientist offered prize money in 1760 to whoever climbed or organized the first successful climb of the tallest peak in Europe, Mont Blanc, at 15,771 feet (4,807 meters). The prize was claimed about twenty-six years later.

Beginning in 1850, many British climbers conquered multiple peaks in Switzerland. The famous Alpine Club was founded in Great Britain in 1857. By 1870, having reached the summit of all the major Alps, adventurers sought new conquests, primarily in the Americas. While most mountaineers to this point had been British climbers working with local guides, the sport became more cosmopolitan during the early twentieth century. More Austrians, Chinese, French, Germans, Indians, Italians, Japanese, and Russians took up mountain climbing.

After World War II (1939–1945), British mountaineers had a new goal: the Himalayas. Among the most well known of the twentieth-century explorers are New Zealander Sir Edmund Hillary and Tibetan guide Tenzing Norgay, who in 1953 were the first to summit the highest peak in the Himalayas, Mount Everest (29,035 feet or 8,850 meters).

After most of the world's most impressive peaks had been conquered, mountaineers shifted their focus to the climb itself. They began charting more difficult routes to the summits. New equipment allowed them to scale rock faces, including smooth vertical granite faces. These expeditions often took much longer, often weeks. The Alpine style of climbing, which involves minimal equipment, no porters, and no supplemental oxygen, also became popular.

Overview

Mountaineering is a hazardous sport. The dangers generally fall into three categories: avalanches, falling, and weather. While avalanches often involve snow, these cascades also can include ice, rocks, and debris, including the climbers' gear. Rock avalanches are less predictable than snow avalanches and as a result are often deadly. Ice and, to a lesser degree, equipment failure can lead to falls. Weather is dangerous at all times of year. Climbers may get disoriented by blizzards, and may get lost or fall because they cannot see. In the summer, lightning may strike mountains.

Mountaineering consists of three phases: hiking, rock climbing, and snow and ice technique. Hiking is a basic element of climbing. It can be grueling, taking hours of an ascent as trails lead up the approach of the mountain and the lower slopes. Rock climbing requires specialized skills learned in advance of the mountain climb. Most use ropes, anchors, and harness equipment. Artificial anchors are placed carefully: these may include shaped metal chocks; metal spikes with eyes or rings called pitons; bolts, which are metal rods with threaded ends for hangers; and friends, or chocks with camming devices that adjust to the cracks in which they are anchored. Ice and snow technique often involves the use of an ice ax to cut steps into the ice, create an anchor on a slope, and stop a climber who is sliding, among other uses. Crampons, spikes that are strapped to boots, grip the ice.

Much of the physical work of mountaineering involves the legs and feet. They bear the weight and pull the body forward and upward—the hands are used for balance, not for pulling the body up a cliff. The palms of the hands are also used to provide friction on smooth rock and may be pressed on opposite sides of a cylindrical shaft during a climb.

Mountaineers must be keenly observant, spying a series of hand and foot moves and planning in advance. Climbers maintain three points of contact with the rock—two feet and a hand or two hands and a foot—to ensure safety and maintain balance.

The descent may be more difficult than the ascent, especially on a rock face. When climbing up, one can see handholds and footholds, but on descent, those are often out of sight below. In some situations, climbers can rappel using ropes.

Modern climbing gear includes lightweight essentials including packs and ice axes; helmets; polarized goggles; boots and climbing suits of high-tech materials; stainless steel crampons; and high-energy foods.

Bibliography

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Bocco, Diana. "What Is Mountaineering?" WiseGeek, 11 Apr. 2017, www.wisegeek.org/what-is-mountaineering.htm#comments. Accessed 11 Apr. 2017.

Mayor, Adrienne. "Who Were the First Recreational Mountain Climbers?" Wonders and Marvels, www.wondersandmarvels.com/2013/06/who-were-the-first-recreational-mountain-climbers.html. Accessed 11 Apr. 2017.

"Medieval Sourcebook: Petrarch: The Ascent of Mount Ventoux." Fordham University, sourcebooks.fordham.edu/source/petrarch-ventoux.asp. Accessed 11 Apr. 2017.

"Mountaineering." Denali National Park, www.nps.gov/dena/planyourvisit/mountaineering.htm. Accessed 11 Apr. 2017.

The Mountaineers. The Freedom of the Hills. 8th Edition. Mountaineers Books, 2010.

Regenold, Stephen. "Everest Climbing Gear: Hillary to Hilaree." National Geographic, 15 Mar. 2012, www.nationalgeographic.com/adventure/everest/gear-edmund-hillary-hilaree-oneill/. Accessed 11 Apr. 2017.

"Top 10 Climbs." National Geographic, 5 June 2012, www.nationalgeographic.com/travel/top-10/climbs/. Accessed 11 Apr. 2017.

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