Landscape Architecture and Engineering

Summary

Landscape architecture is the development and design of landscapes that take into account environmental and aesthetic concerns while addressing practical human use of the space. Landscape architecture aims to incorporate the natural environment into the design and construction of a space in a minimally disruptive way that also conserves natural resources in the short and long term. This can pose challenges and create limitations in terms of techniques, applications, and judgments used in the design and construction processes. Landscape architects design and plan spaces such as gardens, parks, campuses, and commercial centers and restore historic sites and degraded environments, such as landfills and mined land.

Definition and Basic Principles

Landscape architecture attempts to unify the human-constructed environment with the existing natural environment to create a practical, sustainable, and aesthetically pleasing space. Landscape architecture tends to incorporate urban planning, ecological restoration, and green infrastructure in the design of open-air public spaces.

The title of landscape architect is often used interchangeably with landscape designer. Although both do undertake landscape design, the American Society of Landscape Architects states that the two professions are different because a landscape architect must have a higher level of training and skill and usually needs post-secondary education. Fundamentally, it takes a more significant investment of time to study landscape architecture.

Landscape architecture must consider all visual, ecological, and cultural issues involved in the development of the natural landscape. Essentially, landscape architecture involves designing open-air public spaces that meet certain environmental, social, and aesthetic goals while prudently using finite land and natural resources. It follows the theories, principles, and practices of general architecture and also considers and assesses the social, ecological, and geological processes occurring within and affecting the landscape.

Background and History

Human society has long attempted to blend natural and artificial environments, as evidenced by the English theater gardens of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, the Zen gardens in China and Japan, and large urban parks in the United States. Although the design philosophies and approaches toward unifying architecture with the natural environment differ, the concept is shared by Western and Eastern cultures.

Landscape architecture, particularly as it relates to gardening and building design, is a discipline as old as human society and the human desire to control and modify the natural landscape. The term “landscape architecture” itself, however, was first coined by the Scottish gentleman Gilbert Laing Meason in 1828. The concept of landscape architecture reached the mainstream about thirty years later, when Frederick Law Olmsted and Calvert Vaux were commissioned to design Central Park in New York City. Olmsted is considered the father of American landscape architecture. The profession continued to gain significant credibility and growth at the beginning of the twentieth century with the founding of the American Society of Landscape Architects in 1899 and the introduction of a landscape architecture program at Harvard University in 1900. This program was instrumental in shifting the focus of landscape architecture from private gardens to open-air public spaces.

Landscape architecture has had a long history in the West, but countries in other parts of the world have also been active in the field. Since the mid-twentieth century, a significant amount of research in and application of landscape architecture has taken place in China. There, landscape architecture has advanced significantly, for example in incorporating gardens into urban landscapes.

How It Works

Landscape architecture involves the design and development of outdoor public areas that are not only functional but also aesthetically pleasing and environmentally friendly. It is the job of a landscape architect to blend design, function, beauty, and the natural environment to achieve desired social, environmental, and aesthetic outcomes.

Typically, landscape architecture involves overseeing project design, often of urban regeneration programs; site inspections of both ecological aspects and preexisting human-made structures; and environmental impact assessments. Landscape architects also design projects and present their proposals before government bodies charged with planning and conservation responsibilities. The design process usually involves a number of steps, including preplanning, project planning, preliminary and final design, report writing and approvals, and implementation and development. Landscape architects work in conjunction with architects, surveyors, hydrologists, environmental scientists, foresters, and engineers to determine the design and arrangement of structures and infrastructure and the most appropriate way to protect and use natural areas and resources. Landscape architects analyze the natural elements present in the area and produce detailed designs that incorporate environmental aspects of construction, such as climate, soil, topography, vegetation, and habitat, with structures for human use, including walkways, fountains, and decorative features.

Applications and Products

Landscape architecture is a multidisciplinary field of applied science and engineering, and its applications are vast and varied. Wherever humans and nature meet, landscape architecture theory and application are necessary. The applications of landscape architecture are diverse and range from small to large. They include the design and management of vast wilderness areas and national parks, small-scale urban gardens and public parks, resorts, residential estates, and open areas in business parks. Landscape architecture also deals with the reclamation of environmentally degraded areas, such as landfills, and the preservation of historic sites and districts. Landscape architects must be versatile, as their work can encompass urban and rural areas and involve both terrestrial and aquatic environments.

However, landscape architecture is mainly employed in urban design and planning, environmental restoration, ecotourism, parks and gardens, recreational area design and development, and green infrastructure implementation.

Urban Design. Urban design generally refers to the organizational and developmental stage of landscape architecture in towns and cities and often involves the development of public spaces in urban areas. Landscape architects use the knowledge gained through preliminary assessments to determine the ideal site for development within a specific urban environmental space. For instance, when choosing a site for a widely-used structure or area, a landscape architect would want the site to be easily accessible, near public transportation or a densely populated residential area. This would minimize travel time and expense, reduce car emissions and pollution, and conserve fossil fuels.

Environmental Restoration. The growing human population places significant pressure on the natural landscape. The impact that humans have on nature can be seen in water pollution, abandoned industrial areas, dilapidated waterfronts, neglected railroad yards, and landfills. As humans continue to encroach into natural habitats and true greenfield sites become rarer, landscape architects and designers look toward degraded areas, either to restore them to their natural state or to permit renewed human use. The reclamation of derelict urban and rural areas for public use is vital for the sustainable development of human communities. It not only demonstrates a commitment to sustainable land use and protection of the environment but also improves the quality of life for members of the community.

Ecotourism, Parks, Gardens, and Recreational Areas. Many people living in urban areas visit parks and gardens. Landscape architects design and develop these areas for both recreational and aesthetic purposes while minimizing their impact on the natural environment. Landscape architects also design resorts and ecotourism infrastructures. Tourism based on ecological principles has become increasingly popular. One of the applications of landscape architecture is the development of green infrastructure in wilderness areas that will accommodate tourists without adversely affecting the surrounding landscape and the native flora and fauna.

Careers and Course Work

To enter into the landscape architecture profession, a person should obtain a Bachelor of Landscape Architecture or a Bachelor of Science in landscape architecture from an accredited university. Programs in landscape architecture have been offered at many universities in the United States, including Harvard University, Pennsylvania State University, and the University of Wisconsin, Madison. Students who seek a career in landscape architecture will usually have a talent for design and possess strong analytical skills. They should also have a strong interest in the environment. Landscape architecture courses include the history of landscape architecture, surveying, landscape design and construction, landscape ecology, plant and soil science, site design, and urban and regional planning.

Upon completion of their undergraduate studies, students will have gained knowledge and awareness of urban and landscape design, ecological planning, heritage conservation, regional landscape planning, land development, park and recreation planning, and environmental reclamation and restoration. In addition, students will be familiar with computer-aided design (CAD), model building, geographic information systems (GIS), and three-dimensional visualization and simulation.

In many countries, including the United States, the United Kingdom, Canada, and Australia, graduates must register to obtain a license to practice landscape architecture, and they may have to continue their education to maintain registration. Registration processes and procedures, however, differ from country to country. Many landscape architects are self-employed, but graduates can also embark on careers in the private sector, in specialized government organizations and agencies, and in universities undertaking teaching and research.

Social Context and Future Prospects

As the public's environmental consciousness develops, greater opportunities in landscape architecture will emerge, as will the necessity for lasting and significant decisions regarding landscape planning and design. Projects such as green buildings that reduce the environmental and economic costs of heating and cooling and water conservation and pollution reduction through design and management of storm water are being investigated and implemented by landscape architects in the early twenty-first century.

In addition, as GIS and computer graphics technologies continue to advance, so will the ability of landscape architects to design projects using simulated three-dimensional visualizations and modeling. In particular, GIS-based data can assist in creating realistic representations of softscape design elements such as vegetation and improve terrain and landscape imagery. Advances in technology will allow landscape architects to produce highly detailed simulations of natural and urban environments, enabling them to provide much more accurate predictions of possible environmental impacts.

In the twenty-first century, landscape architects continued to focus on environmentally conscious and aesthetically pleasing landscape architecture projects throughout the world. These projects focused on sustainability and recreation. Examples included the Tippet Rise Art Center in Montana, which incorporated art exhibits and a music venue into the natural mountain landscape. Landscape architects responsible for Tongva Park and Ken Genser Square in California transformed an abandoned urban space into a public recreation area featuring native plants and highlighting sustainability. Similar projects were completed internationally as well, including Red Ribbon Park in China. 

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